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Ailabouni AS, Mettu VS, Thakur A, Singh DK, Prasad B. Effect of Cimetidine on Metformin Pharmacokinetics and Endogenous Metabolite Levels in Rats. Drug Metab Dispos 2024; 52:86-94. [PMID: 38049999 PMCID: PMC10801632 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.123.001470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tubular secretion is a primary mechanism along with glomerular filtration for renal elimination of drugs and toxicants into urine. Organic cation transporters (OCTs) and multidrug and toxic extrusion (MATE) transporters facilitate the active secretion of cationic substrates, including drugs such as metformin and endogenous cations. We hypothesized that administration of cimetidine, an Oct/Mate inhibitor, will result in increased plasma levels and decreased renal clearance of metformin and endogenous Oct/Mate substrates in rats. A paired rat pharmacokinetic study was carried out in which metformin (5 mg/kg, intravenous) was administered as an exogenous substrate of Oct/Mate transporters to six Sprague-Dawley rats with and without cimetidine (100 mg/kg, intraperitoneal). When co-administered with cimetidine, metformin area under the curve increased significantly by 3.2-fold, and its renal clearance reduced significantly by 73%. Untargeted metabolomics was performed to investigate the effect of cimetidine on endogenous metabolome in the blood and urine samples. Over 8,000 features (metabolites) were detected in the blood, which were shortlisted using optimized criteria, i.e., a significant increase (P value < 0.05) in metabolite peak intensity in the cimetidine-treated group, reproducible retention time, and quality of chromatogram peak. The metabolite hits were classified into three groups that can potentially distinguish inhibition of i) extra-renal uptake transport or catabolism, ii) renal Octs, and iii) renal efflux transporters or metabolite formation. The metabolomics approach identified novel putative endogenous substrates of cationic transporters that could be tested as potential biomarkers to predict Oct/Mate transporter mediated drug-drug interactions in the preclinical stages. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Endogenous substrates of renal transporters in animal models could be used as potential biomarkers to predict renal drug-drug interactions in early drug development. Here we demonstrated that cimetidine, an inhibitor of organic cation transporters (Oct/Mate), could alter the pharmacokinetics of metformin and endogenous cationic substrates in rats. Several putative endogenous metabolites of Oct/Mate transporters were identified using metabolomics approach, which could be tested as potential transporter biomarkers to predict renal drug-drug interaction of Oct/Mate substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vijaya Saradhi Mettu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Aarzoo Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Dilip Kumar Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
| | - Bhagwat Prasad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington
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Abramov A, Hoffmann T, Stark TD, Zheng L, Lenk S, Hammerl R, Lanzl T, Dawid C, Schön CC, Schwab W, Gierl A, Frey M. Engineering of benzoxazinoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: Metabolic and physiological challenges. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2021; 192:112947. [PMID: 34534712 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.112947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Plant specialised metabolites constitute a layer of chemical defence. Classes of the defence compounds are often restricted to a certain taxon of plants, e.g. benzoxazinoids (BX) are characteristically detected in grasses. BXs confer wide-range defence by controlling herbivores and microbial pathogens and are allelopathic compounds. In the crops maize, wheat and rye high concentrations of BXs are synthesised at an early developmental stage. By transfer of six Bx-genes (Bx1 to Bx5 and Bx8) it was possible to establish the biosynthesis of 2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one glucoside (GDIBOA) in a concentration of up to 143 nmol/g dry weight in Arabidopsis thaliana. Our results indicate that inefficient channeling of substrates along the pathway and metabolisation of intermediates in host plants might be a general drawback for transgenic establishment of specialised metabolite biosynthesis pathways. As a consequence, BX levels required for defence are not obtained in Arabidopsis. We could show that indolin-2-one (ION), the first specific intermediate, is phytotoxic and is metabolised by hydroxylation and glycosylation by a wide spectrum of plants. In Arabidopsis, metabolic stress due to the enrichment of ION leads to elevated levels of salicylic acid (SA) and in addition to its intrinsic phytotoxicity, ION affects plant morphology indirectly via SA. We could show that Bx3 has a crucial role in the evolution of the pathway, first based on its impact on flux into the pathway and, second by C3-hydroxylation of the phytotoxic ION. Thereby BX3 interferes with a supposedly generic detoxification system towards the non-specific intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksej Abramov
- Chair of Plant Breeding, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckman Str. 2, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Thomas Hoffmann
- Associate Professorship of Biotechnology of Natural Products, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann Str. 1, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Timo D Stark
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technical University of Munich, Lise-Meitner Str. 34, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Linlin Zheng
- Chair of Genetics, Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann Str. 8, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Stefan Lenk
- Chair of Genetics, Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann Str. 8, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Richard Hammerl
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technical University of Munich, Lise-Meitner Str. 34, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Tobias Lanzl
- Chair of Plant Breeding, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckman Str. 2, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Corinna Dawid
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technical University of Munich, Lise-Meitner Str. 34, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Chris-Carolin Schön
- Chair of Plant Breeding, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckman Str. 2, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Wilfried Schwab
- Associate Professorship of Biotechnology of Natural Products, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann Str. 1, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Alfons Gierl
- Chair of Genetics, Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann Str. 8, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Monika Frey
- Chair of Plant Breeding, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckman Str. 2, 85354, Freising, Germany.
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Abstract
Abstract
Isomeric methoxyoxindoles are metabolised by rats, guinea-pigs and rabbits to phenolic metabolites by O-demethylation and hydroxylation. This has been shown by comparison of the physical characteristics of the metabolites with those of standard synthetic hydroxyoxindoles. Negligible O-demethylation of methoxyoxindoles occurs with rat or guinea-pig liver microsome preparations, when compared with those of rabbit, but significant O-demethylation occurs with rat liver slices.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H BECKETT
- Department of Pharmacy, Chelsea College of Science and Technology (University of London), Manresa Road, S.W.3
| | - D M MORTON
- Department of Pharmacy, Chelsea College of Science and Technology (University of London), Manresa Road, S.W.3
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Crumeyrolle-Arias M, Tournaire MC, Rabot S, Malpaux B, Thiéry JC. 5-hydroxyoxindole, an indole metabolite, is present at high concentrations in brain. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:202-7. [PMID: 17722070 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
5-Hydroxyoxindole has been identified as a urinary metabolite of indole, which is produced from tryptophane via the tryptophanase activity of gut bacteria. We have demonstrated recently that 5-hydroxyoxindole is an endogenous compound in blood and tissues of mammals, including humans. To date, 5-hydroxyoxindole's role is unknown. The aim of this study was to compare 5-hydroxyoxindole levels in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during day-night and seasonal changes, as a common approach to pilot physiological characterization of any compound. Simultaneous blood and CSF sampling was performed in the ewe, because its size allows collection in quantities suitable for 5-hydroxyoxindole assay (HPLC-ED) in awake animals, without obvious physiological or behavioral disturbance. 5-Hydroxyoxindole concentration was quite stable in plasma (2-6 nM range), whereas, in CSF, it displayed marked day-night and photoperiodic variations (4-116 nM range). 5-Hydroxyoxindole levels in CSF were twofold higher at night than during the day and at least one order of magnitude higher during the long compared with the short photoperiod. These day/night and photoperiodic variations persisted after pinealectomy, indicating that 5-hydroxyoxindole rhythms in CSF are independent of melatonin formation. In conclusion, high levels of 5-hydroxyoxindole in the CSF during long photoperiod and its daily modulation suggest physiological involvement of 5-hydroxyoxindole in rhythmic adjustments in the brain, independently of the pineal gland.
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Papy-García D, Barbier V VÉ, Tournaire MC, Cane A, Brugère H, Crumeyrolle-Arias M, Barritault D. Detection and quantification of 5-hydroxyoxindole in mammalian sera and tissues by high performance liquid chromatography with multi-electrode electrochemical detection. Clin Biochem 2003; 36:215-20. [PMID: 12726931 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-9120(02)00454-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Since 5-hydroxyoxindole structurally related indole metabolites play different roles in some hepatic and neurologic disorders we found necessary to develop an assay to further investigate the physiologic relevance of this compound. METHODS We have designed a convenient assay to determine 5-hydroxyoxindole in serum using solid phase extraction and a highly selective High Performance Liquid Chromatography system with multi-Electro Chemical Detection (HPLC-ECD). RESULTS We have identified and quantified 5-hydroxyoxindole in various mammalian species. Its distribution in tissues showed that the molecule is also present in brain, liver, kidney and spleen, but not in skeletal muscle. CONCLUSIONS 5-hydroxyoxindole is an endogenous tryptophan metabolite present in circulating blood and in some tissues at the nmol level, its determination using HPLC-ECD will be useful for elucidating the role of this molecule in normal and disease conditions.
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Cane A, Tournaire MC, Barritault D, Crumeyrolle-Arias M. The endogenous oxindoles 5-hydroxyoxindole and isatin are antiproliferative and proapoptotic. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 276:379-84. [PMID: 11006132 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2000.3477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxindole-core synthetic molecules are currently being developed as anticancer drugs that target protein tyrosine kinases associated with growth factor receptors. Oxindole, 5-Hydroxyoxindole, and 2, 3-dioxindole [isatin] are natural molecules found in mammalian body fluids and tissues and we addressed the question of similar properties of endogenous oxindoles. 5-Hydroxyoxindole and isatin, but not oxindole, inhibited N1E-115, BALB/c3T3, BBC, PC12, and HL60 proliferation at submicromolar concentrations. Acute treatment with 5-hydroxyoxindole and isatin reduced the activity of extracellular signal regulated protein kinases (ERKs) by 35% at 100 microM and ERK1 activity was strongly inhibited by 5-Hydroxyoxindole at 10 microM. Survival of PMA-differentiated HL60 and FGF(2)-differentiated PC12 cells was not affected by 5-Hydroxyoxindole and isatin treatment, suggesting that endogenous oxindoles interact with growth factors signaling. The physiological implications of these data and the potential utility of 5-Hydroxyoxindole and isatin as antitumor agents are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cane
- Laboratoire CRRET, UPRESA CNRS 7053, University Paris 12 Val-de-Marne, Avenue du Général de Gaulle, Créteil cedex, 94010, France
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Smith DJ, Skiles GL, Appleton ML, Carlson JR, Yost GS. Identification of goat and mouse urinary metabolites of the pneumotoxin, 3-methylindole. Xenobiotica 1993; 23:1025-44. [PMID: 8291262 DOI: 10.3109/00498259309057041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
1. Urine from goats dosed i.v. with 3-methylindole (3MI; 15 mg/kg) or [methyl-14C] 3MI (15 mg/kg, 0.5 microCi/kg) contained at least 11 metabolites of 3MI. 2. Goat metabolized 3MI to sulfate conjugates of 4- or 7-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole, 5- or 6-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole, and 3,5- or 6-dihydroxy-3-methyloxindole; glucuronic acid conjugates of indole-3-carboxylic acid and 4- or 7-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole; and unconjugated 3-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole. Diastereoisomeric glucuronic acid conjugates of 3-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole were also identified in goat urine. 3. Urine from mice dosed i.p. with 3MI (400 mg/kg) or [ring-UL-14C] 3MI (400 mg/kg, 125 microCi/kg) contained at least six metabolites of 3MI. 4. Mice metabolized 3MI to glucuronic acid conjugates of 3,5- or 6-dihydroxy-3-methyloxindole, 5- or 6-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole, and indole-3-carboxylic acid; and unconjugated indole-3-carboxylic acid. Unconjugated 3-hydroxy-3-methyloxindole was identified in mouse urine in a previous report. 5. Both goats and mice metabolized 3MI to a mercapturate, 3-[(N-acetyl-L-cystine-S-yl)methyl]indole, which has been previously identified and was confirmed in this study. 6. 3-Methyloxindole was not identified in the urine of either goats or mice. 7. The major pathways of 3MI biotransformation in goats and mice is the formation of mono- and dihydroxy-3-methyloxindoles and their subsequent conjugation with glucuronic acid or sulfate. 8. There are no apparent qualitative differences in the biotransformation of 3MI between goats and mice that can account for their different sensitivities to 3MI-induced lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Smith
- Department of Animal Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164-6310
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Damani LA. Chemical reactivity considerations in the metabolism of N-heteroaromatics. DRUG METABOLISM AND DRUG INTERACTIONS 1988; 6:149-58. [PMID: 3155360 DOI: 10.1515/dmdi.1988.6.2.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Enzymic carbon hydroxylations in N-heteroaromatics may involve either an electrophilic activated oxygen species (oxene), or a nucleophile (hydroxyl ion, OH-). A consideration of the chemical reactivities of ring systems often allows tentative predictions of likely reaction products with appropriate enzyme systems. e.g. microsomal cytochrome P-450, or cytosolic molybdenum hydroxylases. Pyrroles and related pi-excessive N-heteroaromatics are substrates for electrophilic enzymic ring hydroxylations mediated by cytochrome P-450, but the acidic ring nitrogen in pyrroles is not normally a site for metabolic attack. Pyridines and related pi-deficient N-heteroaromatics are substrates for nucleophilic enzymic ring hydroxylations mediated by molybdenum hydroxylases. The nucleophilic nitrogen in such rings can also be a site for metabolism, affording N-oxides or quaternary N-conjugates as metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Damani
- Chelsea Department of Pharmacy, King's College London, U.K
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9
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Chapter 5 Microbial and in Vitro Enzymic Transformation of Alkaloids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s1876-0813(08)60240-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Morton DM, Hoffman DG. Metabolism of a new herbicide, tebuthiuron (1-[5-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]- 1,3-dimethylurea), in mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, duck, and fish. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1976; 1:757-68. [PMID: 1271483 DOI: 10.1080/15287397609529374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Orally dosed tebuthiuron was readily absorbed in mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, and ducks. The compound was extensively metabolized and the metabolites were rapidly excreted in the urine of mice, rats, rabbits, and dogs and in the mixture of urine and feces in ducks. The major metabolites of tebuthiuron were formed by N-demthylation of the substituted urea side chain in each species examined, including fish. Oxidation of the dimethylethyl group occurred in mice, rats, dogs, rabbits, and ducks. The N-demethylation reaction at the 3-position of the urea proceded through an N-hydroxymethyl intermediate. No accumulation of tebuthiuron or its metabolites was observed in the animals, a finding consistent with the low order of toxicity observed in other studies.
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Knoll J, Zsilla G. Possible mechanism of the low tolerance capacity of azidomorphine and azidocodeine. Biochem Pharmacol 1974; 23:745-50. [PMID: 4822754 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(74)90639-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Morton DM, Fuller DM, Green JN. Antiparasitic nitroimidazoles. 6. The metabolism and excretion of some 2-styryl-5-nitroimidazoles. Xenobiotica 1973; 3:257-66. [PMID: 4749128 DOI: 10.3109/00498257309151521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Gupta D, Breitmaier G, Voelter W, Jung G, Breitmaier E, König W. Urinary steroid chromatograms from children. NATURE: NEW BIOLOGY 1972; 235:55-6. [PMID: 4500457 DOI: 10.1038/newbio235055a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Marchelli R, Hutzinger O, Heacock RA. The thin-layer chromatography of the hydroxyindole-3-carboxylic acids. J Chromatogr A 1970; 47:523-6. [PMID: 5441110 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(70)80084-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Beckett AH, Morton DM. The metabolism of corynantheidine and 9-methoxycorynantheidine-type alkaloids by liver microsomes. Biochem Pharmacol 1967; 16:1609-15. [PMID: 6049428 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(67)90139-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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