Behavior disorders of childhood

The sociopathy of sociobiology

Mealey's evolutionary reasoning is logically flawed. Furthermore, the evidence presented in favor of a genetic contribution to the causation of sociopathy is overinterpreted. Given the potentially large societal impact of sociobiological speculation on the roots of criminality, more-than-usual caution in interpreting data is called for.

Prisoner's Dilemma, Chicken, and mixedstrategy evolutionary equilibria

Mealey's interesting interpretation of sociopathy is based on an inappropriate two-person game model. A multiperson, compound game version of Chicken would be more suitable, because a population engaging in random pairwise interactions with that structure would evolve to an equilibrium in which a fixed proportion of strategic choices was exploitative, antisocial, and risky, as required by Mealey's interpretation.

Fatherless rearing leads to sociopathy

Endorsing Mealey's analysis, it is pointed out that increasing rates of crime and violence are due to increasing proportions of children being reared in circumstances radically different from the extendedfamily environment to which we are evolntionarily adapted, that is, they are reared without fathers.

Sociopathy and sociobiology: Biological units and behavioral units

Behavioral biologists have long sought to link behavioral units (e.g., aggression, depression, sociopathy) with biological units (e.g., genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, neuroanatomical loci). These units, originally contrived for descriptive purposes, often lead to misunderstandings when they are reified for purposes of causal analysis. This genetic and biochemical explanation for sociopathy reflects such problems.

Is sociopathy a type or not? Will the “real” sociopathy please stand up?

The validity of the classification of “primary sociopaths” as a qualitatively distinct group in the general population is questioned. Cenetic variation in the experience and expression of emotions may play a role in the development of antisocial behavior. However, research clearly documents that socialization environments powerfully modify the expression of genetic biases in a manner that increases or decreases the risk for “sociopathy.”

Sociobiology, sociopathy, and social policy

Evolutionary analysis suggests that policies based on deterrence may cope effectively with primary sociopathy if the threat of punishment fits the crime in the cost/benefit calculus of the sociopath, not that of the public. On the other hand, policies designed to offset serious disadvantage in social competition may help inhibit the development of secondary sociopathy, rather than deter its expression.

Implications of an evolutionary biopsychosocial model

Mealey's work has several interesting implications: It refutes the charge that sociobiology paints a cynical portrait of human nature and adopts a one-sided reductionism; it exemplifies a general theoretical scheme for constructing evolutionary biopsychosocial models of human behavior; and it has the practical effect of promoting and informing early intervention in children at risk for psychopathic disorder.

The role of attachment in the development and prevention of sociopathy

Mealey's sociobiological model of sociopathy could profit from attachment theory, in particular, the theory and research on the basis of the Adult Attachment Interview (Main & Goldwyn 1985–1993). Findings of an adult attachment study in a forensic psychiatric setting are summarized. Three attachment-oriented strategies for families, schools, and forensic settings are proposed to help reduce or prevent secondary sociopathy and criminal recidivism.

The role of emotion in sociopathy: Contradictions and unanswered questions

Emotion is critical in Mealey's conceptual arguments. However, several of her assertions about the role of emotion in sociopathy are problematic. Questions are raised regarding the link between lack of anxiety and low levels of secondary emotions such as love and sympathy, the argument that sociopaths are low in anxiety but high in neuroticism, and the designation of anxiety as a secondary emotion.

Psychopathy and violence: Arousal, temperament, birth complications, maternal rejection, and prefrontal dysfunction

The key questions arising from Mealey's analysis are: Do environmental factors such as early maternal rejection also contribute to the emotional deficits observed in psychopaths? Are there psychophysiological protective factors for antisocial behavior that have clinical implications? Does a disinhibited temperament and low arousal predispose to primary psychopathy? Would primary or secondary psychopaths be most characterized by prefrontal dysfunction?

Cheaters never prosper, sometimes

In the Frank (1988) model, a small increase in the number of cheaters will soon be reversed. It is not clear that this prediction holds for sociopathy. There are also many attractive evolutionary models that do not admit a small, stable proportion of cheaters. Hence, without definitive evidence about the character of early human society, we cannot conclude that sociopathy has an evolutionary origin.

Sociopathy, evolution, and the brain

We propose that Mealey's model is limited in its description of sociopathy because it does not provide an adequate role for the main organ mediating genes and behavior, namely, the brain. Further, on the basis of our research, we question the view of sociopaths as a homogeneous group.

Group differences ≢ individual differences

Mealey's etiological distinction between primary and secondary sociopathy blurs the delineation between individual and group differences. She uses physiological evidence to support her claim of genetic influences, neglecting variability within social classes, frequency of delinquent behavior in upper and middle classes (measured by self-report), and discontinuity of criminal behavior across the life span. Finally, Mealey's proposals for differential intervention fall short of a future agenda, which should tailor to individual needs, not social classes.

Sociopathy or hyper-masculinity?

Definitional slippage threatens to equate secondary sociopathy with mere criminality and leaves the status of noncriminal sociopaths ambiguous. Primary sociopathy appears to show more environmental contingency than would be implied by a strong genetic trait approach. A reinterpretation in terms of hypermasculinity and hypofemininity is compatible with the data.

On the brain and personality substrates of psychopathy

Further understanding at neuroscientific and personality levels should considerably advance our ability to deal with individuals that have strong sociopathic tendencies. An analysis of neurodynamic responses to emotional stimuli will eventually be able to detect sociopathic tendencies of the brain. Such information could be used to enhance the options available to individuals at risk without limiting their personal freedoms.

Pathways to sociopathy: Twin analyses offer direction

Understanding the bases of complex behavioral phenotypes, such as sociopathy, is assisted by an evolutionary approach, in addition to other theoretical perspectives. Unraveling genetic and environmental factors underlying variant forms of sociopathy remains a key challenge for behavioral science investigators. Twin research methods (e.g., longitudinal analyses; twins reared apart) offer informative means of assessing novel hypotheses relevant to sociopathic behaviors.

A neuropsychology of deception and self-deception

As more criminals are imprisoned, other individuals change their behavior to replace them, as predicted by the “floating niche” theory of strategic behavior. The physiological correlates of sociopathy suggest that research in cognitive neuroscience can lead toward a solution. Promising pathways include building upon current knowledge of self-deceit, the independence of positive and negative emotions, the lateralization of risk and caution, and the conditions promoting prosocial behavior.

Genetic issues in “the sociobiology of sociopathy”

A consideration of the genetics of sociopathy suggests the following. The author's Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS) types 2 to 4 are more likely than types 1 and 5 in crimes of violence, and there may not be an ESS for crimes of property or for sociopathy. Correlations between sociopathy and crimes of property are also more likely due to environmental than to genetic variants, and correlations between sociopathy and crimes of property are due more to environmental than genetic variants.

Touchstones of abnormal personality theory

Strengths of Mealey's target article are its implementation of results from game-theoretic analyses and its potential links with other formal developments. In recent dynamic decision/choice models, reduced salience of avoidance tendencies, said to typify primary sociopaths, has quantifiable consequences for response latencies and choices. Also, formal models of stress effects on information processing predict selected effects of hypoarousability.

Secondary sociopathy and opportunistic reproductive strategy

Mealey's analysis of secondary sociopathy has much in common with Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper's (1991) evolutionary theory of socialization. Both draw attention to the potential influence of early rearing in the promotion of a cold, detached, manipulative, and opportunistic style of relating to others and, in so doing, raise the question of whether secondary sociopathy represents a facultative reproductive strategy.

“Genetics” and DNA polymorphisms

Four questions are raised about Mealey's genetic argument: (1) Where is the evidence that secondary sociopathy is less heritable than primary sociopathy? (2) What is the genetic correlation between the two types of sociopathy? (3) How does genotype-environment interaction relate? (4) How strong are the links between our evolutionary past and current heritability?

The primary/secondary distinction of psychopathy: A clinical perspective

In this brief commentary the author concentrates on the treatment perspectives of Mealey's model. The main weakness of the model is that it does not provide a satisfactory theoretical connection between treatment and different types of target behavior. Even within the primary-secondary distinction, there are large individual differences that should not be overlooked in the planning of treatment.

Transient impairment of visual perception induced by single interictal occipital spikes

We have previously reported that focal occipital interictal epileptiform discharges (spikes) cause transiently prolonged reaction time (RT) and increased nonperception of stimuli, especially in the visual field contralateral to the spike. One subject with very frequent spikes was capable of carrying out a visual recognition task along with the RT task. During central fixation, computer-generated random digits were flashed for 150 ms at random locations on a screen. Some stimuli were delivered during spikes, by means of an amplitude-threshold trigger, whereas control stimuli were delivered at random times between spikes. Following each stimulus, the subject had to press a button for RT and then report the digit perceived. There was a statistically significant increase in nonresponse rate (nonperception) during spikes compared to controls, and this effect was maximal contralateral to the spike. Moreover, among the responses, perceptual accuracy (correct vs incorrect) was significantly impaired during spikes, again predominantly in the visual field contralateral to the spike. Thus, not all focal interictal spikes are necessarily "subclinical;" at least some induce a transient cortical dysfunction of the same kind as produced more enduringly from a structural lesion in the same location. These findings may have clinical relevance in patients, especially children, with very frequent epileptiform discharges and higher cortical dysfunction.

The effect of focal interictal spikes on perception and reaction time. II. Neuroanatomic specificity

By means of a computerized system of spike detection, presentation of visual stimuli, and timing of a button press, we showed previously that single posterior interictal spikes resulted in transient prolongation of reaction time and increased non-response rate in 3 subjects. By varying the response hand and the visual field of stimulus, conditions with maximum spike effect were defined more precisely, in relationship to the location of the spike. In general, spike-induced dysfunction was most pronounced when either response hand or visual field of stimulus was contralateral to the spike. This not only was true across all 3 subjects, but held even for independent right and left occipital spikes within the same subject. Also, perceptual versus motor aspects were differentially affected by the anterior-posterior location of the spike. These findings indicate that focal interictal spikes may transiently disrupt aspects of cortical functioning corresponding to their neuroanatomical location.

Psychiatric assessment of healthy children with various EEG patterns

A sample of 222 health children, 112 girls and 110 boys, aged 5--16 years, with different types of EEG pattern, were investigated by current child-psychiatric methods. The children were recruited from a large material of children selected in accordance with strict criteria of normality from the paediatric and neurological points of view (Petersén & Eeg-Olofsson (1970/71)). The aim of the child-psychiatric assessment was to find out whether any clinical correlation with the EEG patterns could be shown. First of all, 96 children with some form of EEG deviation were included. Besides these, 126 children with normal EEG were recruited at random from the material. In this selected material significant relations emerged between clinical variables and EEG patterns. Normal EEG showed negative correlations with child-psychiatric variables, while deviating EEG patterns were positively correlated. Many of the correlations disappeared in the oldest age group.

The electroencephalogram of normal adolescent males: visual assessment and relationship with other variables

The electroencephalograms (EEGS) were recorded of 223 boys aged from 12 to 16 years inclusive from four different kinds of schools in the former borough of Warley, an industrial area on the outskirts of Birmingham, England. A battery of psychological tests were also administered and descriptions of behaviour were obtained from parents and teachers, as well as information on development and previous medical history. The data were analysed in terms of (a) prevalence of certain EEG features, usually considered abnormal, and (b) the relationship between the EEG and other demographic, developmental and psychological factors. Only 2-2 per cent of the EEGS showed definite abnormalities, such as localised sharp waves and/or spike and wave complexes in their resting record and/or during hyperventilation and photic stimulation, while a further 13-9 per cent showed very slight abnormalities or "immaturity". The abnormal and immature EEGS were significantly related to social class, type of school and positive medical history (especially a history of convulsions or faints). Comparisons with previously reported data are discussed.