Effects of benzoic acid and its analogues on insulin and glucagon secretion in sheep

Food obesogens as emerging metabolic disruptors; A toxicological insight

Human food is composed of loads of chemicals derived naturally as well as unintentionally through environmental sources. Food additives added purposefully, play an important role in the palatability of foods. Most additives are synthetic whose essentiality in food processing is well-known however their health risks are not overlooked. The palatability of food should not only stimulate our eating desire alone but, also assure sufficient quality and safety. Application of food additives varies from region to region due to cultural or ethnic differences and the local food availability. There are about more than ten thousand chemicals allowed in food whereas due to weak enforcement, it becomes onerous for regulatory bodies identifying chemicals that are inadequately or not tested at all for safety. The hiking population and urbanization in many industrialized and developing countries resulted in life-style changes including culinary and eating choices. Particularly, the modern way of this globalised life demands ready-to-cook or ready-made foods, snacks, sweets, soft drinks, desserts, confectionery and so on. These sorts of food would be most uninteresting unless processed with additives. This puts food industries under demand to robustly supply foods that are either partially, fully or ultra-processed using plenty of additives. Recent research warns consuming food additives may result in serious health risks, not only for children but also for adults. Growing body of studies on food additives in various experimental animals, cell cultures, and human population suggest elevation of number of obesity and diabetes risk factors i.e. adiposity, dyslipidemia, weight gain, hyperglycaemia, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, energy imbalance, hormonal intervention etc. Hence, it is important to identify and explore food obesogens or obesogenic food additives posing potential impact. Based on the recent toxicological findings, the review aspires to establish the association between exposure of food obesogen and metabolic disruption which may help filling knowledge gaps and distributing more knowledge, awareness and effective measures to implement treatment and preventive strategies for metabolic syndrome.

The effect of length of storage and sodium benzoate on the nutritive value of reconstituted sorghum grain silages for dairy cows

Twenty Holstein cows at 168 ± 87 d in milk (mean ± SD) were assigned to a 4 × 4 Latin square design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement to evaluate the effects of 2 storage lengths (30 or 90 d) and the presence of sodium benzoate (control or 0.2% as fed) on the nutritive value of reconstituted sorghum grain silages (RSGS). For each treatment, dry ground sorghum grain was rehydrated to 35% moisture and ensiled in 200-L plastic drums. The treatments were RSGS stored for 30 d without sodium benzoate (30 CON), RSGS stored for 30 d with sodium benzoate (30 BEN), RSGS stored for 90 d without sodium benzoate (90 CON) and RSGS stored for 90 d with sodium benzoate (90 BEN). Diets contained 16.3% RSGS. Silages stored for 90 d had higher concentrations of 1,2-propanediol, soluble protein, and ammonia nitrogen than did those stored for 30 d. Sodium benzoate reduced ethanol and ethyl-ester formation. Silages stored for 90 d had higher starch (89.3 vs. 86.9%) and protein (57.1 vs. 54.0%) digestibility compared with silages stored for 30 d. The ruminal acetate-to-propionate ratio tended to be lower in RSGS stored for 90 d than in RSGS stored for 30 d (3.75 vs. 3.34). Milk yield increased from 30.0 kg/d in cows fed RSGS stored for 30 d to 31.2 kg/d in cows fed RSGS stored for 90 d, without a change in dry matter intake (23.5 kg/d on average). Hence, feed efficiency and milk N efficiency also had tendencies to increase in cows fed RSGS stored for 90 d. Sodium benzoate did not alter cow performance but slightly increased plasma glucose (65.2 vs. 63.6 mg/dL). In conclusion, increasing the storage period of RSGS from 30 to 90 d improved starch and protein digestibility, milk yield, and feed efficiency.

Endocrine Disruption by Mixtures in Topical Consumer Products

Endocrine disruption has been gathering increasing attention in the past 25 years as a possible new threat for health and safety. Exposure to endocrine disruptor has been progressively linked with a growing number of increasing disease in the human population. The mechanics through which endocrine disruptors act are not yet completely clear, however a number of pathways have been identified. A key concern is the cumulative and synergic effects that endocrine disruptors could have when mixed in consumer products. We reviewed the available literature to identify known or potential endocrine disruptors, as well as endocrine active substances that could contribute to cumulative effects, in topical consumer products. The number of endocrine actives used daily in consumer products is staggering and even though most if not all are used in concentrations that are considered to be safe, we believe that the possibility of combined effects in mixtures and non-monotonic dose/response is enough to require further precautions. A combined in vitro approach based on existing, validated OECD test methods is suggested to screen consumer products and mixtures for potential interaction with estrogen and androgen hormone receptors, in order to identify products that could have cumulative effects or support their safety concerning direct endocrine disruption capabilities.

Detection of Bacillus and Stenotrophomonas species growing in an organic acid and endocrine-disrupting chemical-rich environment of distillery spent wash and its phytotoxicity

Sugarcane molasses-based distillery spent wash (DSW) is well known for its toxicity and complex mixture of various recalcitrant organic pollutants with acidic pH, but the chemical nature of these pollutants is unknown. This study revealed the presence of toxic organic acids (butanedioic acid bis(TMS)ester; 2-hydroxysocaproic acid; benzenepropanoic acid, α-[(TMS)oxy], TMS ester; vanillylpropionic acid, bis(TMS)), and other recalcitrant organic pollutants (2-furancarboxylic acid, 5-[[(TMS)oxy] methyl], TMS ester; benzoic acid 3-methoxy-4-[(TMS)oxy], TMS ester; and tricarballylic acid 3TMS), which are listed as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In addition, several major heavy metals were detected, including Fe (163.947), Mn (4.556), Zn (2.487), and Ni (1.175 mg l^-1). Bacterial community analysis by restriction fragment length polymorphism revealed that Bacillus and Stenotrophomonas were dominant autochthonous bacterial communities belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and γ-Proteobacteria, respectively. The presence of Bacillus and Stenotrophomonas species in highly acidic environments indicated its broad range adaptation. These findings indicated that these autochthonous bacterial communities were pioneer taxa for in situ remediation of this hazardous waste during ecological succession. Further, phytotoxicity assay of DSW with Phaseolus mungo L. and Triticum aestivum revealed that T. aestivum was more sensitive than P. mungo L. in the seed germination test. The results of this study may be useful for monitoring and toxicity assessment of sugarcane molasses-based distillery waste at disposal sites.

Pesticide use in the U.S. and policy implications: A focus on herbicides

This article examines herbicide use in the United States, providing estimates of poundage, land surface covered, distribution, and recent trends based on federal and state figures. Herbicides are by far the most widely used class of pesticide in the US, where 556 million lbs of herbicide active ingredients (AIs) were applied in 1995. Agriculture accounts for the majority of herbicide use, totaling 461 million lbs of AIs in 1995. Over 60% of the poundage of all agricultural herbicides consist of those that are capable of disrupting the endocrine and/or reproductive systems of animals. In addition, at least 17 types of `inert ingredients,' which can equal 90% or more of a pesticide product, have been identified as having potential endocrine-disrupting effects. Atrazine is the predominant herbicide used according to poundage, with 68-73 million lbs of AIs applied in 1995. However, 2,4-D is the most widespread herbicide, covering 78 million acres for agricultural uses alone. Both of these herbicides are reported endocrine disruptors. Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors, namely the sulfonylureas and imidazolinones, are one of the fastest growing classes of herbicides. Many of these herbicides are 100 times more toxic to select plant species than their predecessors, so they can be applied at rates approximately 100 times lower. Consequently, they can affect plant species at concentration levels so low that no standard chemical protocol can detect them. Due in part to these more potent herbicides, the poundage of herbicides used in the US has decreased since the mid-1980s; however, the available data suggest that the number of treated acres has not significantly declined. A thorough assessment of potential exposure to herbicides by wildlife and humans is limited due to the inaccessibility of production and usage data.

Effects of sodium benzoate, a widely used food preservative, on glucose homeostasis and metabolic profiles in humans

Sodium benzoate is a widely used preservative found in many foods and soft drinks. It is metabolized within mitochondria to produce hippurate, which is then cleared by the kidneys. We previously reported that ingestion of sodium benzoate at the generally regarded as safe (GRAS) dose leads to a robust excursion in the plasma hippurate level [1]. Since previous reports demonstrated adverse effects of benzoate and hippurate on glucose homeostasis in cells and in animal models, we hypothesized that benzoate might represent a widespread and underappreciated diabetogenic dietary exposure in humans. Here, we evaluated whether acute exposure to GRAS levels of sodium benzoate alters insulin and glucose homeostasis through a randomized, controlled, cross-over study of 14 overweight subjects. Serial blood samples were collected following an oral glucose challenge, in the presence or absence of sodium benzoate. Outcome measurements included glucose, insulin, glucagon, as well as temporal mass spectrometry-based metabolic profiles. We did not find a statistically significant effect of an acute oral exposure to sodium benzoate on glucose homeostasis. Of the 146 metabolites targeted, four changed significantly in response to benzoate, including the expected rise in benzoate and hippurate. In addition, anthranilic acid, a tryptophan metabolite, exhibited a robust rise, while acetylglycine dropped. Although our study shows that GRAS doses of benzoate do not have an acute, adverse effect on glucose homeostasis, future studies will be necessary to explore the metabolic impact of chronic benzoate exposure.

A new perspective on the importance of glycine conjugation in the metabolism of aromatic acids

A number of endogenous and xenobiotic organic acids are conjugated to glycine, in animals ranging from mosquitoes to humans. Glycine conjugation has generally been assumed to be a detoxification mechanism, increasing the water solubility of organic acids in order to facilitate urinary excretion. However, the recently proposed glycine deportation hypothesis states that the role of the amino acid conjugations, including glycine conjugation, is to regulate systemic levels of amino acids that are also utilized as neurotransmitters in the central nervous systems of animals. This hypothesis is based on the observation that, compared to glucuronidation, glycine conjugation does not significantly increase the water solubility of aromatic acids. In this review it will be argued that the major role of glycine conjugation is to dispose of the end products of phenylpropionate metabolism. Furthermore, glucuronidation, which occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum, would not be ideal for the detoxification of free benzoate, which has been shown to accumulate in the mitochondrial matrix. Glycine conjugation, however, prevents accumulation of benzoic acid in the mitochondrial matrix by forming hippurate, a less lipophilic conjugate that can be more readily transported out of the mitochondria. Finally, it will be explained that the glycine conjugation of benzoate, a commonly used preservative, exacerbates the dietary deficiency of glycine in humans. Because the resulting shortage of glycine can negatively influence brain neurochemistry and the synthesis of collagen, nucleic acids, porphyrins, and other important metabolites, the risks of using benzoate as a preservative should not be underestimated.

Effect of the chemical specificity of benzoic acid and its analogs on osmotic fragility in erythrocytes of Sprague-Dawley rats in vitro

We examined the chemical specificity of benzoic (benzene-carboxylic) acid and its derivatives in increasing osmotic fragility (OF) in rat red blood cells (RBCs) in vitro. Benzoic acid increased the OF in the rat RBCs in a dose-dependent manner. Replacement of the carboxylic group with a phosphoric group also increased the OF in RBCs, whereas substitution of the carboxylic group by a sulfonic, amide or hydroxy group did not affect the OF. Replacement of the benzene nucleus with a cyclohexane ring or a straight hydrocarbon chain with six carbons resulted in a greater increase in OF than that induced by benzoic acid. Introduction of a methyl group, chloride or bromide at the m- and p-positions of the benzene ring considerably enhanced the increase in OF induced by benzoic acid. Substitution of the amino and hydroxy group at the m- and p- positions abolished the increase in OF induced by benzoic acid. The introduction of these elements at the o-position showed an almost equal increase in OF as that observed for benzoic acid. A molecule of benzoic acid is composed of both hydrophilic (carboxylic group) and hydrophobic (benzene ring) components. Replacement of the hydrophilic component changed the balance formed between hydrophobic and hydrophilic components in the moiety, resulting alterations to its interaction with the RBC membrane. The size, form and elements introduced into the benzene ring also affected its affinity to the cell membrane, and changed the osmotic resistance in rat RBCs.

FT-IR and FT-Raman vibrational assignment of 2-bromobenzoic acid with the help of ab initio and DFT calculations

The vibrational spectra of 2-bromobenzoic acid (2BBA) have been experimentally recorded (FT-IR and FT-Raman) and compared with the harmonic vibrational frequencies calculated at HF and B3LYP level of theories using 6-311+G(d,p) basis set with appropriate scaling factors. The XRD geometrical parameters show satisfactory agreement with the theoretical prediction at Hartree-Fock and B3LYP levels. The scaled vibrational frequencies at B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) seem to coincide with the experimentally observed values with acceptable deviations. The theoretical spectrograms (IR and Raman) have been constructed and compared with the experimental FT-IR and FT-Raman spectra.

Chemical specificity in short-chain fatty acids and their analogues in increasing osmotic fragility in rat erythrocytes in vitro

We examined the role of the chemical specificity of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and their derivatives in increasing osmotic fragility (OF) in rat red blood cells (RBCs). Except for formic acid, normal SCFAs with 2 to 8 carbons increased the OF in rat RBCs with increasing number of hydrocarbons in a dose-dependent manner. Replacement of the carboxylic group with sulfonic group inhibited, but did not abolish, the SCFA-mediated increase in OF. Introduction of another carboxylic group (dicarboxylic acids) completely abolished the SCFA-mediated increase in OF. Transformation of the hydrocarbon chains in SCFAs from straight to branched or cyclic chains affected the degree of the OF-increasing effect. Introduction of double- or triple-carbon bonds to the hydrocarbon chain in parent SCFAs did not affect the increase in OF. Both hydrophilic (carboxylic group) and hydrophobic elements (hydrocarbons) at opposite sides of a molecule were required to affect the RBC membrane, and the size and form of hydrophobic element were important factors in determining the SCFA-mediated increase in OF. The hydrocarbon chains probably enter the plasma membrane, with the hydrophilic carboxylic base remaining outside of the membrane, and interact with phospholipid in cell membrane and disturb the structure of lipid layer resulting in the increase in OF in the rat RBCs.

Degradation of phthalic acids and benzoic acid from terephthalic acid wastewater by advanced oxidation processes

Terephthalic acid (TPA) wastewater is traditionally being treated by biological method. This study investigates the degradation of three major toxic target organic species, namely terephthalic acid (TPA), isophthalic acid (IPA), benzoic acid (BA), present in the TPA wastewater, by several advanced oxidation processes. The performance of three main oxidation processes such as photofenton oxidation (UV-H(2)O(2)-Fe), photocatalytic ozonation (UV-O(3)-Fe) and photofenton ozonation (UV-O(3)-H(2)O(2)-Fe) were studied. Studies were conducted with and without dilution of TPA wastewater. Photofenton ozonation was found to be most efficient by achieving almost complete destruction of all the three target organics in less than 30 minutes of reaction. In combining several oxidation processes, a comparative study was also carried out between one step addition of oxidants and stepwise addition.