1
|
Fernandez N, Chavarriaga J, Pérez J. Complete corporeal preservation clitoroplasty: new insights into feminizing genitoplasty. Int Braz J Urol 2021; 47:861-867. [PMID: 33848081 PMCID: PMC8321476 DOI: 10.1590/s1677-5538.ibju.2020.0839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION 46,XX Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) remains the first cause of genital virilization and current surgical techniques aim to restore female aspect of genitalia while preserving dorsal neurovascular bundle but not at the expense of not preserving erectile tissue. We aim to report our experience with a new surgical technique for clitoroplasty, completely preserving corporeal bodies, neurovascular bundles without dismembering the clitoris, in four patients with over a year follow up. MATERIALS AND METHODS After IRB approval four patients with 46,XX CAH and Prader 5 and 3 external genitalia, underwent feminizing genitoplasty. Complete preservation of erectile tissue was accomplished without a need to dissect dorsal neurovascular bundle. Glans size allowed no need for glanular reduction and there was no need to dismember the corporeal bodies. RESULTS Four patients 12 to 24-months-old underwent complete corporeal preservation clitoroplasty (CCPC), mean age was 18.5 months, mean follow up was 10.25 months. Vaginoplasty was performed in all patients with partial urogenital mobilization (PUM) and Urogenital Sinus flap (UF), only one severely virilized patient required a parasagittal pre-rectal approach to mobilize the vagina. We had no complications until last follow up. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, we are introducing the concept of CCPC without the need of disassembling the corporeal bodies, neurovascular bundle and glans. It stands as a new alternative for feminizing genitoplasty with complete preservation of erectile tissue and no dissection of neurovascular bundle. Although there is still lacking long-term follow-up, it represents a new step in conservative reconfiguration of the external virilized female genitalia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Fernandez
- Pontificia Universidad JaverianaHospital Universitario San IgnacioDivision of UrologyBogotaColombiaDivision of Urology, Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia;
- Fundacion Santa Fe de BogotaDepartment of UrologyBogotaColombiaDepartment of Urology, Fundacion Santa Fe de Bogota, Bogota, Colombia;
- University of WashingtonSeattle Children's HospitalDivision of UrologySeattleWAUnited StatesDivision of Urology, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Julián Chavarriaga
- Pontificia Universidad JaverianaHospital Universitario San IgnacioDivision of UrologyBogotaColombiaDivision of Urology, Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia;
| | - Jaime Pérez
- Pontificia Universidad JaverianaHospital Universitario San IgnacioDivision of UrologyBogotaColombiaDivision of Urology, Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia;
- Fundacion Santa Fe de BogotaDepartment of UrologyBogotaColombiaDepartment of Urology, Fundacion Santa Fe de Bogota, Bogota, Colombia;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Management of the enlarged clitoris, because of its import for sexual function, has been and remains one of the most controversial topics in pediatric urology. Early controversy surrounding clitoroplasty resulted from many factors including an incomplete understanding of clitoral anatomy and incorrect assumptions of the role of the clitoris in sexual function. With a better understanding of anatomy and function, procedures have evolved to preserve clitoral tissue, especially with respect to the neurovascular bundles. These changes have been made in an effort to preserve clitoral sensation and preserve orgasmic potential. It is the goal of this manuscript to describe the different procedures that have been developed for the surgical management of clitoromegally, with emphasis on the risks and benefits of each. Equally important to any discussion of such a sensitive topic is an understanding of long-term patient outcomes. As we will see, despite its importance, there has been a dearth of data in this regard. Future work in the arena of patient satisfaction will undoubtedly play a major role in directing our surgical approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kaefer
- Pediatric Urology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Richard C Rink
- Pediatric Urology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Reifsnyder JE, Stites J, Bernabé KJ, Galan D, Felsen D, Poppas DP. Nerve Sparing Clitoroplasty is an Option for Adolescent and Adult Female Patients with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Clitoral Pain following Prior Clitoral Recession or Incomplete Reduction. J Urol 2016; 195:1270-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2015.12.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E. Reifsnyder
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - John Stites
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Kerlly J. Bernabé
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Denise Galan
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Diane Felsen
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Dix P. Poppas
- Comprehensive Center for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Institute for Pediatric Urology, Komansky Center for Children’s Health, Department of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital-Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chirurgie réparatrice du clitoris après excision rituelle. ANN CHIR PLAST ESTH 2011; 56:74-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anplas.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 04/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
5
|
Madzou S, Ouédraogo C, Gillard P, Lefebvre-Lacoeuille C, Catala L, Sentilhes L, Descamps P. Chirurgie plastique reconstructrice du clitoris après mutilations sexuelles. ANN CHIR PLAST ESTH 2011; 56:59-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anplas.2009.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2009] [Accepted: 08/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
6
|
Merali HS, Gargollo PC, Diamond DA. Treatment of clitoromegaly of culturally diverse patients. J Pediatr Urol 2009; 5:292-6. [PMID: 19303817 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpurol.2009.02.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Clitoroplasty is a procedure usually performed in young children, but its long-term psychosexual importance is controversial. We present two adult women from different cultural backgrounds who desired surgery for clitoromegaly. METHODS A similar clitoroplasty procedure with preservation of the neurovascular bundle was performed on both patients. Preoperative and postoperative interviews were conducted by an independent observer to learn about the effects of the condition and the surgery. RESULTS The Icelandic patient had bilateral ovarian dysgerminomas and a gonadoblastoma. The Bolivian patient had a 17beta-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductase deficiency. Both patients reported normal libido but sexual inactivity because they felt 'embarrassed'. Postoperatively, our patients reported normal clitoral sensation and that they were sexually active. They differed in their opinion regarding the optimal timing of clitoroplasty - one suggesting surgery soon after birth and the other recommending deferral until informed consent by the patient is possible. CONCLUSIONS Regardless of cultural background patients are affected by clitoromegaly. This is demonstrated in these cases by the reported feelings of discomfort, distress, and sexual inactivity due to embarrassment. The long-term significance of clitoromegaly and the value of clitoroplasty for young patients with disorders of sexual differentiation remain controversial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hasan S Merali
- Department of Urology, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Crouch NS, Liao LM, Woodhouse CRJ, Conway GS, Creighton SM. Sexual function and genital sensitivity following feminizing genitoplasty for congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Urol 2008; 179:634-8. [PMID: 18082214 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2007.09.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Female sex assignment followed by cosmetic genitoplasty to feminize the genitalia in infancy remains standard practice in the clinical management of ambiguous genitalia. The effects of surgery on genital sensitivity have never been objectively evaluated. To our knowledge the current study is the first to evaluate genital sensitivity and sexual function in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 28 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and 10 normal controls were recruited. Details of prior genital surgery were obtained from medical records. Sensitivity thresholds for the clitoris and upper vagina were measured using a GenitoSensory Analyzer (Medoc, Ramat, Israel). Sexual function was assessed using a standardized measure. RESULTS Of 28 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia 24 had undergone feminizing genital surgery. In women who underwent surgery there was significant impairment to sensitivity in the clitoris compared to controls. No difference was observed for the sensitivity threshold in the upper vagina, where surgery had not been done in any of the women. Data on the 4 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia who had not undergone surgery were similar to those in controls. Sexual function difficulties were more severe in women who underwent surgery, especially vaginal penetration difficulties and intercourse frequency. Linear relationships were observed for impairment to sensitivity and severity of sexual difficulties. CONCLUSIONS Genital sensitivity is impaired in areas where feminizing genital surgery had been done and impairment to sensitivity are linearly related to difficulties in sexual function. The new information may help inform clinicians and parents making difficult decisions about genital surgery for infants with ambiguous genitalia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi S Crouch
- Middlesex Centre, University College London Institute of Women's Health, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital, and Institute of Urology, University College London Hospital (CRJW), London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pippi Salle JL, Braga LP, Macedo N, Rosito N, Bagli D. Corporeal sparing dismembered clitoroplasty: an alternative technique for feminizing genitoplasty. J Urol 2007; 178:1796-800; discussion 1801. [PMID: 17707426 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2007.03.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Management for clitoral enlargement remains controversial. New understanding of clitoral function stimulated a search for more conservative surgical approaches, such as recession or partial resection. However, these techniques risk decreasing clitoral sensation or causing painful erections. Moreover, irreversibility continues to be the principal problem that fuels patient, surgeon and societal anxiety in the management of this challenging developmental issue. We describe a new technique, corporeal sparing dismembered clitoroplasty, that dismembers the corporeal bodies and preserves all clitoral structures. MATERIALS AND METHODS After obtaining full informed consent and institutional review board approval 8 consecutive patients with clitoral enlargement underwent corporeal sparing dismembered clitoroplasty. Five girls had congenital adrenal hyperplasia (Prader IV and V in 4 and 1, respectively), 1 had ovotesticular disorder of sexual differentiation and 2 had partial androgen insensitivity syndrome. One pubertal girl was tested with warm, cold and pain clitoral stimulation before and after surgery. For the clitoroplasty technique the glans and its neurovascular bundles are dissected from the corpora. The isolated corpus is then completely divided starting at the bifurcation. Each separated hemicorpus is rotated inferior and lateral, to be placed inside the labial scrotal folds. The glans is reduced by superficial excision of its epithelium and fixed to the pubic attachments. Labia minora are constructed with preputial Byars flaps. Labioplasty and vaginoplasty are then routinely performed. RESULTS Eight patients 6 months to 13 years old underwent this procedure. Followup was 6 to 12 months. All patients recovered well from surgery without early complications. The initial cosmetic result was good in all girls. The hemicorpora were easily palpated inside their labia majora pouches, which retained the desired cosmetic appearance following feminizing genitoplasty. All glans clitoris were preserved. The teenaged patient does not report painful erections. She has maintained clitoral sensation and is satisfied with the cosmetic result. CONCLUSIONS Conservative reconfiguration of the female genitalia without removing genital structures is feasible in girls with clitoral enlargement. The cosmetic appearance of the genitalia is acceptable, at least to the surgeon and parents, in that the enlarged clitoris is hidden. The physiological consequences of the current operation and any surgery in the future to reverse it are unknown. With these aspects in mind we believe that corporeal sparing dismembered clitoroplasty should be incorporated into the armamentarium of surgeons involved in the treatment of clitoral enlargement and presented as an option for feminizing genitoplasty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- João L Pippi Salle
- Division of Urology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
There are two very interesting paediatric urology papers; in the first, authors from London describe the long-term functional outcomes of female genital reconstruction in childhood, and in the second, authors from Italy present a morphological and manometric study of VUR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi S Crouch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Foldes P, Louis-Sylvestre C. Résultats de la réparation chirurgicale du clitoris après mutilation sexuelle: 453 cas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 34:1137-41. [PMID: 17137821 DOI: 10.1016/j.gyobfe.2006.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2006] [Accepted: 09/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ritual excision is responsible for urologic, gynaecologic and obstetrical complications, whose surgical treatment has been fully described. Sexual sequelae deserve the same attention. We describe and analyze the results of a surgical procedure for clitoral rehabilitation. PATIENTS AND METHODS Women requesting this surgery between 1992 and 2005 have been prospectively included in this study. The skin covering the stump was resected and the clitoris identified. The suspensor ligament was sectioned in order to mobilize the stump, the sclerous tissues were removed from the extremity and the neo glans brought to a normal situation. Pre operative pain and clitoral impairment were assessed within five categories. The same was done with anatomical and functional postoperative results at six months. RESULTS Four hundred and fifty-three patients have been completely evaluated. Hospitalisation stay was 24 hours and the procedure never lasted more than 30 minutes. Minor early complications were recorded in 58 patients (hematoma, disrupture of the suture, pain). Four patients reported persisting pain at four months. A visible clitoral massif could be restored in 87% of the cases and a real improvement in clitoral function was obtained in 75% of the patients. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This surgical procedure is easy and reliable. It provides promising cosmetic and functional results with minor complications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Foldes
- Service de chirurgie, centre hospitalier (CH), 20, rue Armagis, 78100 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Nihoul-Fékété C, Thibaud E, Lortat-Jacob S, Josso N. Long-Term Surgical Results and Patient Satisfaction With Male Pseudohermaphroditism or True Hermaphroditism: A Cohort of 63 Patients. J Urol 2006; 175:1878-84. [PMID: 16600787 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(05)00934-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To improve treatment policy, we retrospectively evaluated the results of early corrective genital surgery in 63 sexually ambiguous patients 14 to 38 years old. MATERIALS AND METHODS We analyzed all records classified under male pseudohermaphroditism and true hermaphroditism. Anatomical and functional results and data on self-reported satisfaction were recorded by the managing physician at the last routine followup visit. RESULTS A total of 38 patients were raised female and 25 were raised male. Basal procedures for external genital reconstruction were initiated shortly after birth, when gender was assigned. Complementary surgical procedures were usually required later. In both sexes there was a significant negative correlation between the number of basal, but not complementary, procedures required and year of birth, due to the adoption of 1-stage procedures in the early 1980s. Most patients with gonadal dysgenesis were raised as females and menstruated under treatment but breast development was abnormal in 30%. Spontaneous puberty was observed in true hermaphrodites raised as either sex. In females with partial androgen insensitivity the main problem was shortness of the vagina. Amenorrhea and infertility often led to transient distress. In males results were poor due to intractable micropenis and minimal virilization. Results were good in 5alpha-reductase deficiency. CONCLUSIONS Results of intersex surgery have clearly improved with time, and apart from a patient with 5alpha-reductase deficiency who underwent a successful sex change, no patient expressed dissatisfaction with sex of rearing. However, in the absence of an in-depth psychological survey, these optimistic conclusions are valid only in the settings of our study.
Collapse
|
12
|
Warne G, Grover S, Hutson J, Sinclair A, Metcalfe S, Northam E, Freeman J. A long-term outcome study of intersex conditions. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2005; 18:555-67. [PMID: 16042323 DOI: 10.1515/jpem.2005.18.6.555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Clinical management of intersex conditions is controversial because the available evidence is limited and conflicting, with no long-term population based studies comparing matched controls. OBJECTIVE To assess the long-term psychological, sexual and social outcomes of patients with intersex compared with two matched control populations. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Three different aged-matched (18-32 years) patient groups completed a self-administered questionnaire of established quality of life and well-being inventories measuring physical' health, psychological adjustment and sexuality, following a mail-out to all identified patients. The intersex group (n = 50) and the Hirschsprung disease, a congenital disorder, control group (n = 27), were patients who had attended the Royal Children's Hospital, a tertiary centre, for their clinical care. The insulin dependent diabetes mellitus control group was recruited from an adult tertiary hospital. The study was conducted at the hospital-based Murdoch Childrens Research Institute. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Psychological, sexual and social outcomes. RESULTS The intersex group did not differ from controls on physical or mental health, depression, state anxiety, neuroticism, psychoticism or stressful life events. Intersex participants were satisfied with their overall body appearance, although intersex males were less satisfied than controls with the size (p <0.05) and appearance (p <0.01) of their sex organs. The intersex group was less likely to experience orgasm (p <0.05), tended to experience more pain during intercourse (p = 0.06), had more difficulties with penetration (p <0.01) and were less likely to have sexual activity several times or more a week (p <0.05) than the combined control groups. Intersex participants did not differ from controls in level of sexual desire or enjoyment of sexual activities. CONCLUSIONS Most patients with intersex had positive psychosocial and psychosexual outcomes, although some problems were reported with sexual activity. These results overall suggest that a model of care including early genital surgery carried out at a centre of excellence with a multidisciplinary team can minimize long-term complication rates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Garry Warne
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Minto CL, Liao LM, Woodhouse CRJ, Ransley PG, Creighton SM. The effect of clitoral surgery on sexual outcome in individuals who have intersex conditions with ambiguous genitalia: a cross-sectional study. Lancet 2003; 361:1252-7. [PMID: 12699952 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)12980-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects on sexual function of surgical removal of parts of the clitoris are unknown. For infants with intersex conditions and ambiguous genitalia being raised female, this surgery is often undertaken in early childhood. Our aim was to assess the effects of surgery on sexual outcome in this population. METHOD We did a cross-sectional study to which we recruited 39 adults who had intersex conditions with ambiguous genitalia who were living as female from clinical (n=15) and peer-support (n=24) settings. We obtained data by use of a postal questionnaire, incorporating a validated sexual function assessment inventory. We also obtained hospital notes of 36 respondents who did not want to remain anonymous, and did genital examinations of 19 women. We assessed sexual problems in relation to surgical history and compared the results for our population to those of a healthy control group. FINDINGS Of the 39 individuals enrolled, 28 had been sexually active and all had sexual difficulties. The 18 women who had undergone clitoral surgery had higher rates of non-sensuality (78%) and of inability to achieve orgasm (39%) than did the ten who had not had surgery (20% [p=0.002] and 0% [p=0.03], respectively). INTERPRETATION Sexual function could be compromised by clitoral surgery. Debate on the ethics of the use of this surgery in children should be promoted and further multicentre research is needed to ensure representative samples and comprehensive outcome assessment. Meanwhile, parents and patients who consent to clitoral surgery should be fully informed of the potential risks to sexual function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine L Minto
- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University College London Hospitals NHS Trust, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Stikkelbroeck NMML, Hermus ARMM, Braat DDM, Otten BJ. Fertility in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2003; 58:275-84. [PMID: 12665708 DOI: 10.1097/01.ogx.0000062966.93819.5b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Fertility in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency appears to be reduced. The purpose of this review is to summarize the reported evidence about subfertility in women with CAH and to review the causes of reduced fertility. Compared with a non-CAH female population, pregnancy and live-birth rates are severely reduced in salt-wasting patients, mildly reduced in simple virilizing patients, and normal in nonclassical patients. Several factors have been suggested to contribute to the impaired fertility in CAH females: adrenal overproduction of androgens and progestins (17-hydroxyprogesterone and progesterone), ovarian hyperandrogenism, polycystic ovary syndrome, ovarian adrenal rest tumors, neuroendocrine factors, genital surgery, and psychological factors such as delayed psychosexual development, reduced sexual activity and low maternal feelings. It is obvious that these factors are interrelated. Improving endocrine, surgical, and psychological management could contribute to improving fertility chances in these patients. TARGET AUDIENCE Obstetricians & Gynecologists, Family Physicians. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completion of this article, the reader will be able to define the various types of CAH, to describe the fertility issues in the CAH patients, to outline the various other causes of hyperandrogenism, and to list the treatment options for the patient with CAH.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nike M M L Stikkelbroeck
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, University Medical Center Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Edmonds DK. Congenital malformations of the genital tract and their management. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 17:19-40. [PMID: 12758224 DOI: 10.1053/ybeog.2003.0356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
While congenital malformations of the genital tract are not common, the sequelae of their presence can be serious. The practising gynaecologist must be aware of the range of congenital abnormalities that may occur and the symptoms that may result from them. Failure to manage these patients correctly may have long-term sequelae for their psychological, sexual and reproductive health. The involvement of a multi-disciplinary team in dealing with these patients is imperative, and preparation for surgery-particularly in congenital malformations of the vulva and the vagina-is imperative if the long-term sexual function in these patients is to be fulfilled. Surgical correction of vulval abnormalities in adolescence is related solely to sexual function as most of the reconstructive surgery is done in childhood. For the management of Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome, the recommendation is now that passive dilatation by Franks' technique is the treatment of first choice and only if that fails should surgical approaches be embarked upon. The results of the surgery are similar in all techniques and the particular surgical centre will have its own preference of which technique it adopts. Congenital absence of the cervix is a complex surgical problem and should be dealt with solely in centres with expertise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Keith Edmonds
- Women's and Children's Directorate, Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0HS, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Migeon CJ, Wisniewski AB, Gearhart JP, Meyer-Bahlburg HFL, Rock JA, Brown TR, Casella SJ, Maret A, Ngai KM, Money J, Berkovitz GD. Ambiguous genitalia with perineoscrotal hypospadias in 46,XY individuals: long-term medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome. Pediatrics 2002; 110:e31. [PMID: 12205281 DOI: 10.1542/peds.110.3.e31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To identify and study adults (21 years or older) who have a 46,XY karyotype and presented as infants or children with genital ambiguity, including a small phallus and perineoscrotal hypospadias, reared male or female. METHODS Participants were classified according to the cause underlying their intersex condition based on review of medical and surgical records. Long-term medical and surgical outcome was assessed with a written questionnaire and physical examination. Long-term psychosexual development was assessed with a written questionnaire and semistructured interview. RESULTS Thirty-nine (72%) of 54 eligible patients participated. The cause underlying genital ambiguity of participants included partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (n = 14; 5 men and 9 women), partial gonadal dysgenesis (n = 11; 7 men and 4 women), and other intersex conditions. Men had significantly more genital surgeries (mean: 5.8) than women (mean: 2.1), and physician-rated cosmetic appearance of the genitalia was significantly worse for men than for women. The majority of participants were satisfied with their body image, and men and women did not differ on this measure. Most men (90%) and women (83%) had sexual experience with a partner. Men and women did not differ in their satisfaction with their sexual function. The majority of participants were exclusively heterosexual, and men considered themselves to be masculine and women considered themselves to be feminine. Finally, 23% of participants (5 men and 4 women) were dissatisfied with their sex of rearing determined by their parents and physicians. CONCLUSIONS Either male or female sex of rearing can lead to successful long-term outcome for the majority of cases of severe genital ambiguity in 46,XY individuals. We discuss factors that should be considered by parents and physicians when deciding on a sex of rearing for such infants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claude J Migeon
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
This critical review presents a synthesis of the available theoretical and empirical literatures on human orgasm. Findings from both normal and clinical human populations are included. Two major trends in the literature, the dichotomization of biological and psychological perspectives and the assumption of gender differences, are highlighted. A new multidimensional model of the psychological experience of orgasm is described with a view to futhering a biopsychological approach applicable to both sexes. Clinical applications of this new model are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Mah
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Meyer-Bahlburg HF. Gender and sexuality in classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2001; 30:155-71, viii. [PMID: 11344934 DOI: 10.1016/s0889-8529(08)70024-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The current debate about the psychosocial management of intersex patients has significant implications for 46,XX patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) in two respects: (1) the question of genital surgery for reasons other than purely medical ones before the patient is old enough to give informed consent, and (2) the question of gender assignment in severely masculinized patients. This article reviews the status of the empirical evidence for the development of gender and sexuality in 46,XX persons with classic CAH and its implications for clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H F Meyer-Bahlburg
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
More than 90% of cases of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH, the inherited inability to synthesize cortisol) are caused by 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Females with severe, classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency are exposed to excess androgens prenatally and are born with virilized external genitalia. Most patients cannot synthesize sufficient aldosterone to maintain sodium balance and may develop potentially fatal "salt wasting" crises if not treated. The disease is caused by mutations in the CYP21 gene encoding the steroid 21-hydroxylase enzyme. More than 90% of these mutations result from intergenic recombinations between CYP21 and the closely linked CYP21P pseudogene. Approximately 20% are gene deletions due to unequal crossing over during meiosis, whereas the remainder are gene conversions--transfers to CYP21 of deleterious mutations normally present in CYP21P. The degree to which each mutation compromises enzymatic activity is strongly correlated with the clinical severity of the disease in patients carrying it. Prenatal diagnosis by direct mutation detection permits prenatal treatment of affected females to minimize genital virilization. Neonatal screening by hormonal methods identifies affected children before salt wasting crises develop, reducing mortality from this condition. Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement are the mainstays of treatment, but more rational dosing and additional therapies are being developed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P C White
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas 75390-9063, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Vates TS, Fleming P, Leleszi JP, Barthold JS, González R, Perlmutter AD. Functional, social and psychosexual adjustment after vaginal reconstruction. J Urol 1999; 162:182-7. [PMID: 10379784 DOI: 10.1097/00005392-199907000-00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We assessed the long-term functional, social and psychosexual outcome in children who underwent vaginal reconstruction. MATERIALS AND METHODS We interviewed and assessed the psychological development of 16 women 17 to 28 years old (mean age 22) who underwent vaginal reconstruction only or in combination with other urogenital reconstructive procedures at ages 11 months to 18 years (mean 8.8). Psychological measures included the Beck Depression Inventory, Draw-a-Person test and Linkowski acceptance of disability scale as well as a standard questionnaire evaluating the sexual adjustment, social adjustment and ability for self-support of these women. RESULTS Mean Beck Depression Inventory was 8.5 with less than 9 defined as minimal depression. Mean acceptance of disability score was 83.9 (range 54 to 94), indicating that patients were well adjusted with respect to the disability. Functionally 10 women were satisfied with the appearance of the vagina, 4 were neutral and 2 were dissatisfied. A total of 12 patients had no doubts about their female identity but 2 had occasional, 1 had significant and 1 had chronic doubts. Of the 16 patients 12 have completed high school, 3 are still in high school and 1 has withdrawn from high school. Of the 12 women who have completed high school 9 are currently in college and 3 have completed college. Socially all 16 participants rated family relationships as good and 13 were at least satisfied with their social life. Of the 16 women 12 have had a sexual encounter, including 1 who did not achieve orgasm. Six women are involved in long-term relationships, of whom 1 is married. In regard to the future all patients believe that they will be independent and financially stable with a fulfilling career. CONCLUSIONS While women who have undergone vaginal reconstruction may be at risk for avoiding interpersonal relationships and sexual intimacy, we did not note this finding in our series. The majority of these patients were well adjusted to their physical condition, and had a high level of education and a stable family life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T S Vates
- Department of Pediatric Urology, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Affiliation(s)
- H F Meyer-Bahlburg
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, and Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York 10032-2695, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
|
23
|
Powell DM, Newman KD, Randolph J. A proposed classification of vaginal anomalies and their surgical correction. J Pediatr Surg 1995; 30:271-5; discussion 275-6. [PMID: 7738750 DOI: 10.1016/0022-3468(95)90573-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
A classification of vaginal anomalies has been derived, which permits logical operative decisions. This tool allows the assignment of increasingly involved reconstructive operations to progressively more complex vaginal anatomies. The outcome of this approach in 49 vaginal reconstructions performed in 36 patients over a 25-year period has been analyzed. The cause was found to be congenital adrenal hyperplasia in 21 patients, gonadal dysgenesis in four, and cloaca in two; nine children had other causes. Based on the following anatomic classification and the authors' clinical experience, the following approaches to reconstruction can be recommended. Eight infants with labial fusion (type I) underwent simple introitoplasty. Fourteen patients with distal urogenital sinus (type II) underwent flap vaginoplasty using labioscrotal tissue and/or a posteriorly based flap. Pull-through vaginoplasty was used in 10 children with distal vaginal atresia and proximal urethrovaginal fistula (type III). Four patients with absence of the vagina (type IV) required segmental colon vaginoplasty. Thirteen revisions have been required in nine patients thus far. The follow-up period is 1 to 17 years, and despite the need for reoperation, all but two patients have excellent or satisfactory results based on anatomic and functional considerations. The choice for and timing of vaginal reconstruction rests on precise anatomic evaluation. The complexity of vaginal reconstruction in the growing child and the essentiality of psychosocial adjustment to appropriate sexual identity and function mandate long-term comprehensive follow-up. Optimal care for each patient requires experience and continuity to take the child through diagnosis, surgical reconstruction, stressful adolescence, and into adulthood with full attention to anatomic, physiological, and psychological support.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D M Powell
- Surgical Service, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Gearhart JP, Burnett A, Owen JH. Measurement of pudendal evoked potentials during feminizing genitoplasty: technique and applications. J Urol 1995; 153:486-7. [PMID: 7815630 DOI: 10.1097/00005392-199502000-00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We report on 6 patients (average age 13 months) with ambiguous genitalia who underwent stimulation of the dorsal neurovascular bundle of the phallus during feminizing genitoplasty. Three patients had the adrenogenital syndrome, 1 underwent removal of a masculinizing adrenal tumor before genital reconstruction, 1 had mixed gonadal dysgenesis and 1 had male pseudohermaphroditism. Stimulation of the dorsal neurovascular bundle with measurement of electromyographic nerve conduction latencies was performed before and after ligation of the corporeal bodies and excision of the erectile tissue. In all 6 cases electromyographic responses were preserved after phallic reduction. Our study clearly shows that modern techniques of genital reconstruction allow for preservation of nerve conduction in the dorsal neurovascular bundle and may permit normal sexual function in adulthood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J P Gearhart
- Department of Urology, James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-2101
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Newman K, Randolph J, Anderson K. The surgical management of infants and children with ambiguous genitalia. Lessons learned from 25 years. Ann Surg 1992; 215:644-53. [PMID: 1632686 PMCID: PMC1242521 DOI: 10.1097/00000658-199206000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Over a 25-year period, 91 children with ambiguous genitalia have received surgical management. Female sex assignment was made for 79. Of these, 60 patients underwent extensive clitoral reconstruction consonant with the female assignment. Forty-two patients had vaginal reconstruction. Factors relating to success include: (1) prompt and appropriate sex assignment; (2) early and accurate diagnosis; (3) conservative reconstruction of the clitoris at an early age (less than 1 year); and (4) choice of vaginal reconstruction based on the severity of the malformation. Long-term follow-up demonstrates satisfactory anatomic and functional results when clitoral surgery alone was required. Functional results for patients with extensive vaginal reconstruction have been compromised. Physicians caring for children with congenital intersexual anomalies can expect to encounter a wide spectrum of anatomic and physiologic derangements. Cosmetic appearance alone is an inadequate measure of success because endocrinologic, social, psychological, and sexual factors must be blended into comprehensive evaluation of these patients. The management plan must be flexible and individualized, incorporating long-term follow-up to adulthood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Newman
- Department of Surgery, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010
| | | | | |
Collapse
|