Self-preoccupation and general stress level as sensitizing factors in premenstrual and menstrual distress

The Female Role and Menstrual Distress: An Explanation for Inconsistent Evidence

Numerous studies of either sex role behavior (masculinity/femininity) or women's role attitudes (contemporary/traditional) as related to menstrual distress have amassed inconsistent and contradictory results. It was proposed that these two role variables may hold an interactive relationship with menstrual distress, and their study in isolation may have provoked less reliable results. An interaction was found with masculine women preferring a contemporary role and feminine women committed to traditional role values reporting greater menstrual and premenstrual distress. Feminine contemporary and masculine traditional women revealed less distress associated with the menstrual cycle.

Physical And Psychiatric Correlates Of Gender Discrimination: An Application of the Schedule of Sexist Events

We tested the model that sexist discrimination, measured by the Schedule of Sexist Events (SSE), would account for additional variance in women's physical and psychiatric symptoms, above and beyond that accounted for by generic stressors. A series of hierarchical regression analyses, predicting symptoms on 10 different symptom outcome measures from generic stress and sexist stress (discrimination) were conducted, with the generic stressors entered on the first step and sexist discrimination on the second. Results revealed that sexist discrimination contributed significantly to the variance in women's symptoms, accounting for additional variance in those symptoms. Furthermore, sexist discrimination accounted for more of the variance than did generic stressors in premenstrual, depressive, obsessive-compulsive, somatic, and total psychiatric and physical symptoms. These findings varied with the age and ethnicity of the women and with the symptom measure used, but nonetheless suggest that sexist discrimination plays a significant role in women's most prevalent symptoms.

Perceived stress and severity of perimenstrual symptoms: the BioCycle Study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the longitudinal relation between perceived stress in the previous month and perimenstrual symptom severity across two cycles among regularly menstruating, healthy women (n = 259).

METHODS

At baseline (11 days before the first cycle), participants completed the 4-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) for the previous month (first cycle exposure) and questionnaires on lifestyle factors. On cycle day 22 of a standardized 28-day cycle, participants again completed the PSS for the previous week (second cycle exposure) and each week rated the severity (none, mild, moderate, severe) of 17 psychological and physical symptoms (e.g., crying, cramping, pain). Mixed models estimated the association between perceived stress scores and number of moderate/severe symptoms and symptom severity scores, allowing both stress and perimenstrual symptoms to vary by cycle.

RESULTS

Adjusting for age, education, passive and active smoking, and waist/height ratio (WHtR), high stress (fourth quartile PSS) was associated with an increased risk of reporting >or=8 or more (OR 7.2, 3.3-15.8) and >or=5 (OR 2.5, 1.6-4.1) symptoms as moderate/severe during the perimenstrual period compared with lower stress (quartiles one, two, and three). Stress scores were positively (p < 0.0001) associated with increased symptom severity scores for total, psychological, and physical symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses show that higher perceived stress precedes an increased severity of perimenstrual symptoms. Stress reduction programs may be an effective, nonpharmaceutical treatment for physical and psychological symptom relief.

Premenstrual symptomatology: role of prior knowledge about premenstrual syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Most women have some premenstrual symptoms that may be influenced by diverse environmental factors. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of knowledge about premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in the reports of women and their symptoms.

METHOD

We studied 86 healthy Mexican women whose highest level of education was sixth grade. Participants were assigned to one of two groups. The experimental group watched a videotape describing PMS and its negative consequences in daily life. The control group watched a videotape describing the menstrual cycle. The Menstrual Distress Questionnaire was administered to all women during the first week after menstruation, after which they were shown their designated videotape, and the questionnaire was administered again after the next menstruation.

RESULTS

In the control group, there were no significant differences in premenstrual symptoms reported both before and after the women watched the videotape. However, women in the experimental group reported more severe premenstrual symptoms after watching the videotape.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that after observing the videotape, women's expectancies of negative symptoms in the premenstrual phase increased. Thus, the symptoms reported by these women were enhanced.

Do premenstrual pain and edema exhibit seasonal variability?

This study tested whether symptoms of pain and edema associated with change during the premenstrual phase of the monthly menstrual cycle exhibit a seasonal pattern. Menstruating chronic myofascial face pain cases (N = 99) and acquaintance controls (N = 100) were questioned about their premenstrual symptoms during the prior month in each of 10 consecutive months. Unlike myofascial face pain and psychological distress, premenstrual symptoms of general discomfort and edema did not show an exacerbation in the dark months for either cases or controls. The positive results for distress and facial pain and the negative results for the premenstrual symptoms occurred whether or not respondents met an algorithmic diagnosis of DSM-IV premenstrual dysphoric syndrome.

Perception of family and work environments in women with premenstrual syndrome

Seventy-three women with a prospectively confirmed diagnosis of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) were compared to 50 routine gynaecological care non-PMS controls on measures of social climate/environmental stress. Tests administered included the Family Environment Scale (FES), Work Environment Scale (WES), Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The PMS group scored significantly higher on amount of conflict in their families as well as on emphasis on ethical and religious values but lower on direct emotional expressiveness within the family, intellectual-cultural orientation, and active-recreational orientation as compared to controls. Furthermore, the PMS group perceived having more work pressure, less autonomy on the job, and less variety in their work than controls. Overall, psychological distress was not associated with increased environmental stress either in the PMS or control groups.

Severity of premenstrual symptoms in relation to medical/psychiatric problems and life experiences

The Premenstrual Experience Assessment, a comprehensive questionnaire, was completed by 878 women who were currently having menstrual cycles. Their severity of premenstrual symptoms was studied in relation to demographic variables, gynecological problems, use of medications, psychiatric experience, life stressors, and duration of severity. 14 significant relationships were found. The findings are discussed both in terms of research and clinical practice.