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Abstract
We review what is currently understood about how the structure of the primary solid component of mucus, the glycoprotein mucin, gives rise to the mechanical and biochemical properties of mucus that are required for it to perform its diverse physiological roles. Macroscale processes such as lubrication require mucus of a certain stiffness and spinnability, which are set by structural features of the mucin network, including the identity and density of cross-links and the degree of glycosylation. At the microscale, these same features affect the mechanical environment experienced by small particles and play a crucial role in establishing an interaction-based filter. Finally, mucin glycans are critical for regulating microbial interactions, serving as receptor binding sites for adhesion, as nutrient sources, and as environmental signals. We conclude by discussing how these structural principles can be used in the design of synthetic mucin-mimetic materials and provide suggestions for directions of future work in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Wagner
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - K M Wheeler
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA;
- Microbiology Graduate Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - K Ribbeck
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA;
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Bastholm SK, Samson MH, Becher N, Hansen LK, Stubbe PR, Chronakis IS, Nexo E, Uldbjerg N. Trefoil factor peptide 3 is positively correlated with the viscoelastic properties of the cervical mucus plug. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2016; 96:47-52. [PMID: 27731893 DOI: 10.1111/aogs.13038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The viscoelastic properties of the cervical mucus plug are considered essential for the occlusion of the cervical canal and thereby for protection against ascending infections during pregnancy. Factors controlling this property are virtually unknown. This study explores a possible role of trefoil factor peptides 1, 2 and 3 (TFF1-3); peptides believed to influence mucus viscosity. MATERIAL AND METHODS The study is based on spontaneously shed cervical mucus plugs from 14 women in active labor. The viscoelastic properties; the elastic modulus (G') and the viscous modulus (G") were determined by an oscillatory rheometer. The concentrations of TFF1-3 were measured by an in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Associations were analyzed by random-effects generalized least-squares regression analyses. RESULTS Median (range) concentrations of TFF1, TFF2 and TFF3 were 3.1 (1.2-8.6), 1.1 (<0.006-3.7) and 1000 (170-5300) nmol/g cervical mucus plug, respectively. The TFF3 concentration was associated with G' (regression coefficient 11.7 Pa/Log nm; 95% CI 3.0-20.4, p = 0.009) and G" (regression coefficient 3.2 Pa/Log nm; 95% CI 1.5-5.0, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION We suggest that TFF3 plays a role in the viscoelastic properties of the cervical mucus plug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara K Bastholm
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mie H Samson
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Naja Becher
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lea K Hansen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Peter R Stubbe
- Food Production Engineering Research Group, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ioannis S Chronakis
- Nano-BioScience Research Group, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ebba Nexo
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Niels Uldbjerg
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
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Bastholm SK, Becher N, Stubbe PR, Chronakis IS, Uldbjerg N. The viscoelastic properties of the cervical mucus plug. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2014; 93:201-8. [DOI: 10.1111/aogs.12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara K. Bastholm
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Aarhus University Hospital; Aarhus Denmark
| | - Naja Becher
- Department of Clinical Genetics; Aarhus University Hospital; Aarhus Denmark
| | | | | | - Niels Uldbjerg
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Aarhus University Hospital; Aarhus Denmark
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Lavaud MC, Trouillas J. [The mucus: a medium of life]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 40:19-23. [PMID: 22019743 DOI: 10.1016/j.gyobfe.2011.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 01/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate whether mucus, with its complex structure and specific functional properties, is a medium for life? PATIENTS AND METHODS We compared cervical and nasal mucus samples collected from 45 ovulatory women consulting for sterility and 5 menopausal women respectively. We analyzed the physicochemical and functional characteristics. We also performed 266 sperm penetrability tests. We studied 32 samples using scanning electron microscope, according to Hexamethyl-Disilasane technique and the critical point drying method. RESULTS Both types of mucus had 10cm spin abilities and typical ferning patterns. The pH were similar (8.09±0.58 and 8.46±0.32 for cervical and nasal mucus, respectively) as well as the percentages of positive sperm penetration test (55.6 and 40.6 respectively). We observed similar patterns of spermatozoa mobility in both types of mucus. Under the scanning electron microscope, structures resembled woven fabric, with a stretched and rigid framework. Filaments of different diameters formed variable loose meshes. Thinner filaments linked together thicker filaments measuring between 300 and 400nm. The intermediate filaments varied between 100 and 200nm. Very thin and sparse filaments crossed the meshes, measuring between 10 to 100nm. Spermatozoa, bacteria and unspecified round cells were enmeshed in the mucus. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION From this first comparative study of nasal and cervical mucus giving the proof of sperm penetration in the both mucus and the discovery of mucus produced by archaea living in extreme conditions, we suggested that mucus, from all origins, is a medium of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-C Lavaud
- Laboratoire de biologie de la reproduction, groupement hospitalier Est, 59, boulevard Pinel, 69677 cedex Bron, France.
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Gohara K, Ansai T, Koseki T, Ishikawa M, Kakinoki Y, Shibuya K, Nishihara T, Takehara T. A new automatic device for measuring the spinnbarkeit of saliva: the Neva Meter. J Dent 2004; 32:335-8. [PMID: 15053918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdent.2004.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2003] [Revised: 12/18/2003] [Accepted: 01/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We have recently developed a new device for measuring the spinnbarkeit of saliva called the Neva Meter. The purpose of this study was to evaluate this device and to measure spinnbarkeit as well as viscosity, another important property, in the resting saliva of 24 healthy adults. METHODS We used polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a standard solution to establish the reproducibility of spinnbarkeit tests. We collected resting saliva from 24 employees of a business office (16 males and 8 females, average age: 37.8) and investigated the relationship between spinnbarkeit and viscosity. RESULTS The spinnbarkeit of PVA increased along with the concentration of the solution, and the reproducibility of the values was acceptable. Spinnbarkeit of resting saliva showed a positive correlation with viscosity at a shear rate of 76.6 s(-1) (r = 0.55, P < 0.05) and 191.5 s(-1) (r = 0.59, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The newly developed Neva Meter was suitable for measuring the spinnbarkeit of saliva quickly and easily at the chair-side in the dental clinic. Results obtained using this new device may be important for understanding and evaluating the condition of the oral cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Gohara
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Kyushu Dental College, 2-6-1 Manazuru, Kokurakita-ku, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan
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Chrétien FC. Involvement of the glycoproteic meshwork of cervical mucus in the mechanism of sperm orientation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003. [DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0412.2003.00041.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Saldiva PH, Parada MA, Macchione M, Paiva PS, Guimarães ET, Lorenzi G, Martins MA, Montes GS, Balbani AP, King M. Nasal mucus clearance in rats: differences with sex and phase of the oestrous cycle. J Appl Toxicol 1995; 15:289-95. [PMID: 7594198 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2550150410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We studied the changes in airway mucus rheology and clearability, as well as in morphometric indices, between male rats and females in either the oestrous or dioestrous phases of the oestrous cycle. Three-month-old Wistar rats were studied and the phases of the oestrous cycle were determined based on analysis of vaginal smears stained by a modified Shorr's procedure. Nasal mucus samples were analysed by means of magnetic rheometry and determination of in vitro transport rate in the frog palate preparation. In situ clearance on the exposed nasal septum was also determined. The mucociliary velocity in situ was significantly affected by both sex and the oestrous cycle phase. In female rats, dioestrous phase clearance was significantly slower than the oestrous phase one. Clearance in male rats was faster than that of both the phases studied in females. Mucus rigidity of females in the oestrous phase was more rigid than that of females in the dioestrous phase and that of males. Mucus viscosity/elasticity ratio for deformations performed at high frequencies was greater for females in comparison with males. Cough clearability computed on the basis of rheological parameters was predicted to be more favourable in females. There were no significant differences between the three groups in mucociliary clearance in vitro. Morphometric studies of the nasal epithelium showed that epithelial and glandular volumes did not exhibit sex- or oestrous-phase-related differences, but the amount of epithelial acidic glycoproteins was lower in females in the oestrous phase in comparison with males and those in the dioestrous phase, the same trend being observed in the glands of the lamina propria.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Saldiva
- Laboratório de Poluição Atmosférica Experimental, HC-FMUSP, São Paulo, Brazil
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Rubin BK, Ramirez O, Zayas JG, Finegan B, King M. Collection and analysis of respiratory mucus from subjects without lung disease. THE AMERICAN REVIEW OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE 1990; 141:1040-3. [PMID: 2327638 DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm/141.4_pt_1.1040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We collected the respiratory mucus coating the endotracheal tubes used during short surgical procedures in 27 patients with no clinical evidence of respiratory disease. Twelve were male and 15 were female, and they ranged from 1 to 64 yr of age (mean, 28.7 yr). The viscoelastic properties, frog palate transport rate, and percent solid composition were in the normal range reported for both canine and human mucus collected using the bronchoscopy brush technique. There were no significant differences noted between male and female patients, and there were no changes in mucus or transport properties seen with aging. Mucus was also collected separately from the inside of the tube exposed to constant gas flow (13 patients), and from the outside of the endotracheal tubes in 25 patients. Although there were no significant differences in viscoelastic properties between inside and outside mucus, there was a greater thread formation (filance, 45 versus 26 mm; p less than 0.005) and a higher percentage of solids in mucus from the inside of the endotracheal tube (15.9 versus 11.4%; p less than 0.05), which is compatible with reduced hydration. The duration of anesthesia ranged from 25 to 195 min (mean, 85 min). There was no effect of duration of anesthesia on any of the measured mucus properties. This technique for mucus collection allows us to study alterations in mucus properties in patients with and without pulmonary disease at the time of incidental surgery.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- B K Rubin
- University of Alberta Pulmonary Defense Group, Department of Paediatrics, Edmonton, Canada
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Chrétien FC, Guignard M. Improvement of human ovulatory cervical mucus by alpha-amylase. Effect on spinability and crystallization in vitro. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 35:345-52. [PMID: 3264244 DOI: 10.1007/bf00561362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Alpha-amylase can modify ovulatory cervical mucus in vitro, changing both its structure and an essential rheological parameter, spinability. After 5 min at alpha-amylase concentrations above 4.6 mg/ml, spinability was greatly reduced or even non-existent because of the total liquefaction of the mucus. These concentration levels also induced breakdown of the solid phase of the hydrogel, producing more or less marked abnormalities in mucus crystallization after air drying. In the presence of the highest alpha-amylase concentrations (greater than or equal to 37.5 mg/ml) dendrites could not be formed and only sodium chloride crystals were visible at high magnification under a scanning electron microscope. In the 75 to 1.2 mg/ml concentration range, where alpha-amylase has a significant action on cervical mucus, there was an overall decrease in average spinability as the enzyme concentration fell. The action of the enzyme was greater after 10 min than after 5 min reaction time. For the 10-min reaction time interval, the activity could be adjusted using a squared polynominal regression, whereas for the 5-min reaction time interval a linear regression was a suitable model of enzymatic activity. In the 4.6 to 1.2-mg/ml concentration range, adjustment on a linear model showed that there was a significant effect of alpha-amylase concentration and reaction time on mucus spinability. Statistical analysis of the dose-effect data was compatible with the structural changes in dried cervical mucus demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Chrétien
- Unité Biologie de la Reproduction-Cytogénétique, Hôpital de la Pitié, Paris, France
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Carlstedt I, Lindgren H, Sheehan JK, Ulmsten U, Wingerup L. Isolation and characterization of human cervical-mucus glycoproteins. Biochem J 1983; 211:13-22. [PMID: 6409086 PMCID: PMC1154324 DOI: 10.1042/bj2110013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Mucus glycoproteins (mucins) were extracted from human cervical pregnancy mucus by 6 M-guanidinium chloride in the presence of proteinase inhibitors. Purification was subsequently achieved by isopycnic density-gradient centrifugation in CsCl/ guanidinium chloride gradients. The purified macromolecules represented approx. 85% of the total and were devoid of nucleic acids and proteins, as judged by analytical density-gradient centrifugation, disc electrophoresis and u.v. spectroscopy. Sedimentation-velocity centrifugation revealed a single unimodal peak with S20,W 50.1S in 0.2M-NaCl and 37.0S in 6 M-guanidinium chloride. Molecular weights obtained by light-scattering were 9.7 X 10(6) and 5.9 X 10(6) in 0.2M-NaCl and 6 M-guanidinium chloride respectively. The chemical analyses were typical of those of epithelial mucins. The macromolecules contained approx. 20% (w/w) of protein, and 65% (w/w) was accounted for as carbohydrate. Serine and threonine constituted 32 mol/100 mol and proline 10 mol/100 mol of the amino acids. The major sugars found were N-acetylglucosamine (12.8%), N-acetylgalactosamine (9.7%), galactose (18.7%), sialic acid (15.0%) and fucose (7.5%).
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