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Jain N, Xu J, Kanojia RM, Du F, Jian-Zhong G, Pacia E, Lai MT, Musto A, Allan G, Reuman M, Li X, Hahn D, Cousineau M, Peng S, Ritchie D, Russell R, Lundeen S, Sui Z. Identification and structure-activity relationships of chromene-derived selective estrogen receptor modulators for treatment of postmenopausal symptoms. J Med Chem 2009; 52:7544-69. [PMID: 19366247 DOI: 10.1021/jm900146e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
As part of a program aimed at the development of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), novel chromene scaffolds, benzopyranobenzoxapanes, were discovered. Many compounds showed binding affinity as low as 1.6-200 nM, displayed antagonist behaviors in the MCF-7 human breast adenocarcinoma cell line as well in Ishikawa cell line with IC(50) values in the range 0.2-360 nM. On the basis of the side chain substitution, various compounds demonstrated strong inhibitory activity in anti-uterotropic assay. Compound 7-(R) and its major metabolites 5-(R) and 6-(R) were evaluated in several in vivo models of estrogen action. Relative to a full estrogen agonist (ethynyl estradiol) and the SERM raloxifene, 7-(R) was found to be a potent SERM that behaved as antagonist in the uterus and exhibited estrogen agonistic activity on bone, plasma lipids, hot flush, and vagina. The overall pharmacokinetic profile and stability were significantly improved compared to those of the phase 2 development compound 9-(R).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nareshkumar Jain
- Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research & Development LLC, 665 Stockton Drive, Exton, Pennsylvania 19341, USA.
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2
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Kalbasi Anaraki D, Sianati S, Sadeghi M, Ghasemi M, Paydar MJ, Javadi P, Ejtemaei Mehr S, Dehpour AR. Modulation by female sex hormones of the cannabinoid-induced catalepsy and analgesia in ovariectomized mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 586:189-96. [PMID: 18371951 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2007] [Revised: 01/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are psychoactive compounds with many pharmacological properties such as analgesia, sedation and catalepsy most of which are mediated by cannabinoid CB1 receptors. In the present study, we evaluated whether the ovarian sex hormones are involved in the cannabinoid-induced catalepsy and analgesia in ovariectomized female mice. Female NMRI mice (weighing 25-30 g) were divided into 3 main groups: unoperated, sham-operated and ovariectomized. Both the catalepsy and analgesia induced by different doses of the synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 (2 and 4 mg/kg, i.p.) were examined in the groups in the presence or absence of the cannabinoid CB1 antagonist AM251 (0.5 mg/kg). We also evaluated effects of estradiol valerate (10 mg/kg) and progesterone (25 mg/kg) on catalepsy and analgesia induced by WIN 55,212-2 in ovariectomized mice. The antinociceptive effect of WIN 55,212-2 was significantly (P<0.01) enhanced in ovariectomized mice, which was prevented by pretreatment with estradiol but not by progesterone. There was no significant difference in the cannabinoid-induced catalepsy between control and ovariectomized mice. However, pretreatment with progesterone but not estradiol potentiated the cataleptic effect of low dose of WIN 55,212-2 (2 mg/kg) in ovariectomized mice (P<0.01). The present data demonstrated for the first time that ovarian sex steroids could modulate both cannabinoid-induced catalepsy and analgesia in female ovariectomized mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Kalbasi Anaraki
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences/University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 13145-784, Tehran, Iran
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3
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Greenspan JD, Craft RM, LeResche L, Arendt-Nielsen L, Berkley KJ, Fillingim RB, Gold MS, Holdcroft A, Lautenbacher S, Mayer EA, Mogil JS, Murphy AZ, Traub RJ. Studying sex and gender differences in pain and analgesia: a consensus report. Pain 2007; 132 Suppl 1:S26-S45. [PMID: 17964077 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2007.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 692] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 10/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In September 2006, members of the Sex, Gender and Pain Special Interest Group of the International Association for the Study of Pain met to discuss the following: (1) what is known about sex and gender differences in pain and analgesia; (2) what are the "best practice" guidelines for pain research with respect to sex and gender; and (3) what are the crucial questions to address in the near future? The resulting consensus presented herein includes input from basic science, clinical and psychosocial pain researchers, as well as from recognized experts in sexual differentiation and reproductive endocrinology. We intend this document to serve as a utilitarian and thought-provoking guide for future research on sex and gender differences in pain and analgesia, both for those currently working in this field as well as those still wondering, "Do I really need to study females?"
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel D Greenspan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Maryland Dental School, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201-1510, USA Research Center for Neuroendocrine Influences on Pain, Baltimore, MD 21201-1510, USA Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA Department of Oral Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-6370, USA Laboratory for Experimental Pain Research, Department of Health Science and Technology, Center for Sensory-Motor Interaction, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA Department of Community Dentistry and Behavioral Science, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL 32610-3628, USA Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA Division of Surgery, Oncology, Reproductive Biology and Anaesthetics, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, Imperial College, London SW10 9NH, UK Department of Physiological Psychology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg 96045, Germany Center for Neurovisceral Sciences and Women's Health, and Departments of Medicine, Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, and Physiology, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 900095-1792, USA Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada PQ H3A 1B1 Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303-0389, USA
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4
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Craft RM, Ulibarri C, Leitl MD, Sumner JE. Dose- and time-dependent estradiol modulation of morphine antinociception in adult female rats. Eur J Pain 2007; 12:472-9. [PMID: 17869144 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2007.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2007] [Revised: 07/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
To clarify the activational role of ovarian hormones on pain and analgesia, the present study determined whether estradiol (E2) modulation of nociception and morphine antinociception in adult female rats depends on (1) the dose of E2 and (2) the interval between E2 treatment and nociceptive testing. Female rats were ovariectomized (OvX) and either oil vehicle (0), or E2 (0.25, 2.5 or 25 microg/0.1 ml vehicle) was injected s.c. two consecutive days of every four days for five cycles before testing. Either 4, 24, 48 or 96 h after the last injection, nociception was evaluated on the 50 degrees C hotplate and warm water tail withdrawal tests before and after escalating doses of s.c. morphine. Lordosis behavior and uterine weight were assessed in other rats at the same E2 doses and time points. E2 significantly lengthened latency to respond on the hotplate test at 24 h after the last injection, but had no significant effect on tail withdrawal latencies. The lower doses of E2 significantly increased morphine antinociceptive potency at 4-24 h on one or both tests, but the intermediate E2 dose significantly decreased morphine potency at 48 h on the hotplate test. Thus, E2 modulation of morphine antinociception in the adult female rat is bidirectional, and occurs at E2 doses producing cyclic changes in sexual behavior, uterine weight and vaginal cytology that are similar to those observed in gonadally intact, cycling females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA.
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5
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Abstract
There is still an unresolved paradox with respect to the immunomodulating role of estrogens. On one side, we recognize inhibition of bone resorption and suppression of inflammation in several animal models of chronic inflammatory diseases. On the other hand, we realize the immunosupportive role of estrogens in trauma/sepsis and the proinflammatory effects in some chronic autoimmune diseases in humans. This review examines possible causes for this paradox. This review delineates how the effects of estrogens are dependent on criteria such as: 1) the immune stimulus (foreign antigens or autoantigens) and subsequent antigen-specific immune responses (e.g., T cell inhibited by estrogens vs. activation of B cell); 2) the cell types involved during different phases of the disease; 3) the target organ with its specific microenvironment; 4) timing of 17beta-estradiol administration in relation to the disease course (and the reproductive status of a woman); 5) the concentration of estrogens; 6) the variability in expression of estrogen receptor alpha and beta depending on the microenvironment and the cell type; and 7) intracellular metabolism of estrogens leading to important biologically active metabolites with quite different anti- and proinflammatory function. Also mentioned are systemic supersystems such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the sensory nervous system, and the sympathetic nervous system and how they are influenced by estrogens. This review reinforces the concept that estrogens have antiinflammatory but also proinflammatory roles depending on above-mentioned criteria. It also explains that a uniform concept as to the action of estrogens cannot be found for all inflammatory diseases due to the enormous variable responses of immune and repair systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer H Straub
- Laboratory of Experimental Rheumatology and Neuroendocrino-Immunology, Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, 93042 Regensburg, Germany.
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6
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Craft RM, Clark JL, Hart SP, Pinckney MK. Sex differences in locomotor effects of morphine in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 85:850-8. [PMID: 17217999 PMCID: PMC1868667 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 11/15/2006] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in reinforcing, analgesic and other effects of opioids have been demonstrated; however, the extent to which sex differences in motoric effects of opioids contribute to apparent sex differences in their primary effects is not known. The goal of this study was to compare the effects of the prototypic mu opioid agonist morphine on locomotor activity in male vs. female rats. Saline or morphine (1-10 mg/kg) was administered s.c. to adult Sprague-Dawley rats, which were placed into a photobeam apparatus for 3-5 h to measure activity. Modulation of morphine's effects by gonadal hormones and by handling (either during the test session or for 4 days before the test session) were examined. Morphine initially suppressed and later increased locomotor activity in both sexes relative to their saline-injected controls, but males were more sensitive than females to the initial locomotor suppressant effect of morphine. Intermittent, brief handling during the 3-h test session blunted morphine-induced locomotor activation in both sexes. Females in proestrus were the most sensitive to morphine's locomotor-stimulant effect, with females in estrus showing the least response to morphine. Gonadectomized (GDX) males with or without testosterone were equally sensitive to morphine's effects, whereas GDX females treated with estradiol showed a blunted response to morphine's effects, similar to intact females in estrus. Brief handling on each of 4 consecutive days pre-test attenuated morphine's locomotor suppressant effect in males but had no effect in females, thereby eliminating the sex difference. These data suggest that sex differences in morphine's effects on locomotor activity can be attributed to gonadal hormones in females, and to differential stress-induced modulation of morphine's effects in males vs. females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA.
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7
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Kuba T, Wu HBK, Nazarian A, Festa ED, Barr GA, Jenab S, Inturrisi CE, Quinones-Jenab V. Estradiol and progesterone differentially regulate formalin-induced nociception in ovariectomized female rats. Horm Behav 2006; 49:441-9. [PMID: 16257405 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2005] [Revised: 09/20/2005] [Accepted: 09/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and preclinical studies have found sex-specific differences in the discrimination and perception of inflammatory stimuli. The emerging picture suggests that the biological basis of these differences resides in the regulatory activity of gonadal hormones in the central nervous system. This study describes the effects of ovarian hormones in inflammatory pain processes. Ovariectomized rats received estradiol and/or progesterone, and the number of paw flinches was measured after 1, 2.5 or 5% formalin administration. Both estradiol and progesterone altered the number of flinches only after 1% formalin administration. Estradiol significantly reduced the overall number of flinches during Phase II of the formalin nociceptive response while progesterone attenuated Phase I of the response. After co-administration of estradiol and progesterone, progesterone reversed estradiol's analgesic effect in Phase II, however, estradiol did not reverse progesterone's analgesic activity in Phase I. To determine if estradiol effects are receptor-mediated, tamoxifen (selective estrogen receptor mediator, 15 mg/kg) or alpha-estradiol (an inactive isomer of estradiol, 20 microg) were utilized. Tamoxifen decreased the number of formalin-induced flinches during Phase II while alpha-estradiol did not affect any formalin-induced responses. When co-administered with estradiol, tamoxifen failed to reverse estradiol's effect, suggesting both tamoxifen and estradiol activate similar intracellular mechanisms. Although Western blot analysis detected the presence of estradiol alpha and beta and progesterone B receptors in the spinal cord, hormone replacement treatments had no effects on the levels of these receptors. We postulate that the mechanisms by which estradiol and progesterone induce analgesia occur through the activation of their receptor at the spinal cord level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzipora Kuba
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College and The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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8
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Merchenthaler I. The effect of estrogens and antiestrogens in rat models of hot flush. Drug Dev Res 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.20057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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9
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Terner JM, Lomas LM, Picker MJ. Influence of estrous cycle and gonadal hormone depletion on nociception and opioid antinociception in female rats of four strains. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2005; 6:372-83. [PMID: 15943959 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2005.01.354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2004] [Revised: 01/10/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Evidence suggests that gonadal hormones can modulate sensitivity to nociceptive stimuli and opioid antinociception. However, cross-study comparisons addressing the nature of this modulation have been complicated by a number of methodologic factors, including the use of different rodent strains and opioids. The present study examined the influence of estrous cycle and gonadal hormone depletion (ovariectomy) on thermal nociception and opioid antinociception in female F344, Lewis, Long Evans, and Wistar rats. Estrous cycle-dependent differences in nociceptive sensitivity were not observed in any of the strains. Ovariectomy decreased nociceptive sensitivity relative to their intact female counterparts. In normal cycling females, morphine and buprenorphine were generally most potent in metestrus and proestrus and least potent in estrus. The magnitude of these differences was consistently larger with buprenorphine. Ovariectomy increased the antinociceptive potency of morphine and buprenorphine, with this effect also being larger with buprenorphine. These data suggest that in adult females of a number of rat strains, estrous cycle and gonadal hormone depletion modulate the antinociceptive potency of opioids, with the magnitude of this effect being dependent on the type of opioid. In contrast, depletion of gonadal hormones, but not estrous cycle, modulates thermal nociceptive sensitivity in adult female rats. PERSPECTIVE Gonadal hormones influence opioid antinociception, and this effect is apparent across different genetic backgrounds. These results suggest that the phase of the menstrual cycle might alter the effectiveness of certain opioids administered to relieve pain in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolan M Terner
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3270, USA.
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10
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Cataldo G, Bernal S, Markowitz A, Ogawa S, Ragnauth A, Pfaff DW, Bodnar RJ. Organizational manipulation of gonadal hormones and systemic morphine analgesia in female rats: effects of adult ovariectomy and estradiol replacement. Brain Res 2005; 1059:13-9. [PMID: 16153618 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2005] [Revised: 08/03/2005] [Accepted: 08/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has indicated the importance of sex in mediating the larger magnitude of mu-opioid receptor agonist-induced analgesia in male relative to female rodents. Whereas manipulations involving the adult activational effects of gonadal hormones minimally alter these analgesic sex differences, manipulations involving neonatal organizational effects of gonadal hormones have previously been shown to profoundly affect morphine analgesia. Thus, adult male rats neonatally castrated on the first day after birth displayed reductions in morphine analgesia relative to sham-operated males, and adult female rats neonatally treated with testosterone propionate on the first day after birth displayed enhancements in morphine analgesia relative to vehicle-treated females. Because neonatal androgenization in female rats produces an anovulatory syndrome that could change their adult hormonal milieu, the present study examined whether adult ovariectomy altered the magnitude of systemic morphine analgesia (1-5 mg/kg) in neonatal androgenized female rats relative to neonatal vehicle-treated female rats as well as gonadal steroid hormone replacement with estradiol benzoate. Intact male rats displayed significantly greater magnitudes and potencies (2- to 2.3-fold leftward shift) of systemic morphine analgesia than female rats treated neonatally with either vehicle (1-5 mg/kg) or testosterone (1.7-5 mg/kg). In turn, neonatal androgenized female rats displayed significantly greater magnitudes of systemic morphine (1, 5 mg/kg) analgesia than vehicle-treated female rats accompanied by a smaller 20% leftward shift in potency. Adult ovariectomy minimally affected morphine analgesia in neonatal vehicle-treated females, while significantly reducing the magnitude (1 mg/kg), but not the potency of morphine analgesia in neonatal androgenized female rats. Estradiol replacement therapy significantly increased the magnitude of morphine analgesia in both groups at some doses, but only changed the potency (20-30%) in females treated neonatally with vehicle. Taken together, these data suggest a limited organizational-activational gonadal hormone interaction in the mediation of systemic morphine analgesia in female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Cataldo
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, USA
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11
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Stoffel EC, Ulibarri CM, Folk JE, Rice KC, Craft RM. Gonadal hormone modulation of mu, kappa, and delta opioid antinociception in male and female rats. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2005; 6:261-74. [PMID: 15820914 PMCID: PMC1420268 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2004.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2004] [Revised: 11/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Previous studies suggest that sex differences in morphine antinociception in rodents might be attributed to the activational effects of gonadal hormones. The present study determined whether hormonal modulation of opioid antinociception in adult rats extends to opioids other than the prototypic mu agonist morphine. Male and female rats were sham-gonadectomized (sham-GDX) or gonadectomized (GDX) and replaced with no hormone, estradiol (E2, females), progesterone (P4, females), E2+P4 (females), or testosterone (males). Approximately 28 days later, nociception was evaluated on the 50 degrees C hot plate and warm water tail withdrawal tests before and after subcutaneous administration of hydromorphone, buprenorphine, U50,488, or SNC 80. In sham-GDX (gonadally intact) rats, the mu agonists and U50,488 were less effective in females than in males in at least one nociceptive test, and the delta agonist SNC 80 was less effective in males than in females. In males, gonadectomy tended to decrease, and testosterone tended to increase antinociception produced by 3 of the 4 agonists. In females, gonadectomy and hormone treatment had more variable effects, although E2 tended to decrease mu opioid antinociception. The present results suggest that activational effects of gonadal hormones are relatively modest and somewhat inconsistent on antinociception produced by various opioid agonists in the adult rat. PERSPECTIVE This study demonstrates that reproductive hormones such as testosterone in males and estradiol in females do not consistently modulate sensitivity to the analgesic effects of opioids in the adult organism.
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MESH Headings
- Analgesics, Opioid/metabolism
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Animals
- Estrogens/metabolism
- Estrogens/pharmacology
- Estrous Cycle/physiology
- Female
- Gonadal Steroid Hormones/metabolism
- Gonadal Steroid Hormones/pharmacology
- Male
- Orchiectomy
- Ovariectomy
- Pain/drug therapy
- Pain/metabolism
- Pain/physiopathology
- Pain Measurement/drug effects
- Progesterone/metabolism
- Progesterone/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, Opioid/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/metabolism
- Sex Characteristics
- Testosterone/metabolism
- Testosterone/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C. Stoffel
- From the Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Catherine M. Ulibarri
- From the Departments of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - John E. Folk
- From the Department of Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- From the Department of Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Rebecca M. Craft
- From the Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
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12
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Craft RM, Mogil JS, Aloisi AM. Sex differences in pain and analgesia: the role of gonadal hormones. Eur J Pain 2004; 8:397-411. [PMID: 15324772 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 380] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 01/30/2004] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
There is now strong evidence for sex differences in pain and analgesia. These differences imply that gonadal steroid hormones such as estradiol and testosterone modulate sensitivity to pain and analgesia. The goal of this review is to present an overview of gonadal steroid modulation of pain and analgesia in animals and humans, and to describe mechanisms by which males' and females' biology may differentially predispose them to pain and to analgesic effects of drugs and stress. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that sex differences in pain and analgesia may be both quantitative and qualitative in nature. Current research suggests that sex-specific management of clinical pain will be a reality in the not-so-distant future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA.
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13
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Craft RM, Morgan MM, Lane DA. Oestradiol dampens reflex-related activity of on- and off-cells in the rostral ventromedial medulla of female rats. Neuroscience 2004; 125:1061-8. [PMID: 15120865 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2003.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2003] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study was conducted to determine whether the ovarian steroid oestradiol alters the activity of nociceptive modulatory neurons in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM). Adult female rats were ovariectomized and implanted s.c. with an oestradiol-filled or placebo capsule. Sixteen to 37 days later, rats were anaesthetised for single unit recording from RVM neurons. On-cells were characterised by a burst of activity, and off-cells by a pause in activity immediately preceding reflexive withdrawal of the tail from 51 and 54 degrees C water. Although on- and off-cells were evident in both oestradiol- and placebo-treated rats, the reflex-related on-cell burst and off-cell pause were dampened in oestradiol-treated rats. On-cells from oestradiol-treated rats had a mean activity burst of 9.1+/-2.2 Hz in the 2 s preceding the tail withdrawal reflex to 51 degrees C water, compared with 17.9+/-4.3 Hz for on-cells in placebo controls. Off-cell activity during the 2 s preceding tail withdrawal was 4.8+/-2.2 vs. 0.1+/-0.1 Hz in oestradiol vs. placebo-treated females, respectively. Similar changes in on- and off-cell activity occurred when the tail was placed in 54 degrees C water. The present data demonstrate that oestradiol constrains the magnitude of the shift in RVM on- and off-cell activity associated with nociceptive reflexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Craft
- Department of Psychology, PO Box 644820, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA.
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14
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Stoffel EC, Ulibarri CM, Craft RM. Gonadal steroid hormone modulation of nociception, morphine antinociception and reproductive indices in male and female rats. Pain 2003; 103:285-302. [PMID: 12791435 PMCID: PMC1420267 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3959(02)00457-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine how gonadal steroid hormones modulate basal nociception and morphine antinociception relative to regulating reproduction in the adult rat. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were either gonadectomized (GDX) or sham-gonadectomized (sham); GDX males were implanted subcutaneously with capsules containing testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), E2 and DHT, or nothing (0). GDX females received E2, T, or empty (0) capsules immediately after surgery, and vehicle or progesterone (P4) injections at 4-day intervals. Basal nociception and morphine antinociception were tested 28 days after surgery on 50 degrees C and 54 degrees C hotplate tests, and reproductive behavior and physiology were assessed shortly thereafter. There were no significant differences in baseline hotplate latencies among the male treatment groups, but morphine was significantly more potent in sham and GDX+T males than in GDX+0 males. The ability of T to increase morphine's potency was approximated by its major metabolites E2 and DHT, given together but not alone. Baseline hotplate latencies were higher in sham females tested during diestrus than in those tested during estrus. Morphine was significantly more potent in sham females tested during proestrus and diestrus than in those tested during estrus. Baseline hotplate latencies were significantly higher, and morphine was significantly less potent in GDX+E2, GDX+E2/P4 and GDX+T females than in GDX+0 females. All group differences in basal nociception and morphine antinociception observed on the 50 degrees C hotplate test were smaller and generally non-significant on the 54 degrees C hotplate test. Steroid manipulations produced the expected changes in reproductive behaviors and steroid-sensitive organs. These results demonstrate that in adult rats, gonadal steroid manipulations, that are physiologically relevant, modulate (1) basal nociception in females but not males, and (2) morphine's antinociceptive potency in both males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C Stoffel
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520, USA
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15
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Berendsen HH, Weekers AH, Kloosterboer HJ. Effect of tibolone and raloxifene on the tail temperature of oestrogen-deficient rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2001; 419:47-54. [PMID: 11348629 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(01)00966-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Oestradiol, clonidine, tibolone and raloxifene were tested for their effects on the tail temperature of oestrogen deficient rats, a potential new model that can be used to test compounds that may be of use in the treatment of hot flushes in humans. Rats underwent ovariectomies or sham operations and their tail temperature and physical activity were measured telemetrically. Oestrogen depletion affected tail temperature in the rats' active, but not their resting phase. During the transition from the resting to the active phase, tail temperature in normal rats dropped by about 6 degrees C, but only by approximately 1 degrees C after ovariectomy. Treatment of the ovariectomised rats with oestrogen, clonidine or tibolone dose-dependently restored the drop in tail temperature. However, raloxifene did not change the tail temperature of ovariectomised rats. Thus, tibolone and raloxifene have different effects on the temperature regulation in the tail. This method of measuring tail temperature free of stress in ovariectomised rats may serve as a useful procedure for selecting compounds that are of potential use in the treatment of hot flushes.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Berendsen
- Pharmacology Department, NV Organon, P.O. Box 20, 5340 BH, Oss, Netherlands.
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16
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Abstract
A number of investigators have shown that male animals are more sensitive than females to the antinociceptive effects of mu-opioid agonists. The present study was conducted to examine sex differences in opioid antinociception in the rat using agonists known to differ in selectivity for and efficacy at kappa- versus mu-receptors. Dose- and time-effect curves were obtained for s.c. U69593, U50488, ethylketazocine, (-)-bremazocine, (-)-pentazocine, butorphanol and nalbuphine on the 50 or 54 degrees C hotplate and warm water tail withdrawal assays; spontaneous locomotor activity was measured 32-52 min post-injection in the same rats. On the hotplate assay, only butorphanol (54 degrees C) and nalbuphine (50 degrees C) were significantly more potent in males than females. On the tail withdrawal assay, all agonists were significantly more potent or efficacious in males than females at one or both temperatures. In contrast, no agonist was consistently more potent in one sex or the other in decreasing locomotor activity. Estrous stage in female rats only slightly influenced opioid effects, accounting for an average of 2.6% of the variance in females' antinociceptive and locomotor responses to drug (50 degrees C experiment). These results suggest that (1) sex differences in antinociceptive effects of opioids are not mu-receptor-dependent, as they may occur with opioids known to have significant kappa-receptor-mediated activity; (2) the mechanisms underlying sex differences in kappa-opioid antinociception may be primarily spinal rather than supraspinal; (3) sex differences in antinociceptive effects of opioid agonists are not secondary to sex differences in their sedative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, PO Box 644820, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, USA
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17
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Erdtmann-Vourliotis M, Mayer P, Linke R, Riechert U, Höllt V. Long-lasting sensitization towards morphine in motoric and limbic areas as determined by c-fos expression in rat brain. BRAIN RESEARCH. MOLECULAR BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 72:1-16. [PMID: 10521594 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-328x(99)00184-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Chronic application of morphine leads to the development of tolerance towards several of its effects, e.g., analgesia or respiratory depression. Simultaneously, however, sensitization arises which becomes apparent in behavioral tests as increased locomotion or increased self-application. A human correlate for the latter may be the increasing craving for opioids in addicts. To identify brain areas involved in these long-lasting processes, we studied the expression of the transcription factor c-fos by in situ hybridization in rat brain as a marker for changes in gene expression after single or repeated morphine applications in the animals. The only c-fos signal that exceeded background after a single dose of morphine (50 mg/kg) was a diffuse expression in the lateral septum. In contrast, repeated dosage twice daily for 10 days and ascending from 10 to 50 mg/kg resulted in a sharply delineated morphine-induced c-fos synthesis in the dorsomedial and lateral striatum, lateral septum, medial mammillary nuclei, anterior thalamus and, in part masked by a high background due to injection stress, in the cingulate cortex. Most of these areas belong to the limbic system or are closely associated with it. The c-fos response was inducible by morphine in pretreated animals for up to 8 weeks after finishing the repeated application scheme. Retrograde tracing studies revealed that the dorsomedial part of the striatum, which was strongly labeled with the c-fos probe, received inputs from limbic as well as from motoric parts of the thalamus and cortex. Therefore, the sensitization of morphine-induced c-fos expression in parts of the striatum seems to correlate with the locomotor effects of repeated morphine application, whereas the observed sensitization in several limbic brain areas might reflect emotional phenomena like increased self-administration in rats or drug craving in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Erdtmann-Vourliotis
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
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18
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Tsao CM, Ho CM, Tsai SK, Lee TY. Effects of estrogen on autotomy in normal and ovariectomized rats. Pharmacology 1999; 59:142-8. [PMID: 10450069 DOI: 10.1159/000028314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Gonadal hormones may modulate analgesia responses induced by acute stress in humans and rats. To evaluate the effects of gonadal hormones in modifying neuropathic pain, we measured autotomy changes following sciatic nerve resection in ovariectomized rats and in the presence of estrogen replacement. Two groups of female rats were subjected to ovariectomy and sham surgery. Each group was then divided into two subgroups receiving subcutaneously sesame oil with or without estradiol benzoate (5 microg/day/rat). All rats then underwent sciatic nerve resection in one hindlimb. Degree of self-mutilation was measured daily for 8 weeks. Estradiol treatment resulted in significantly lower autotomy scores in ovariectomized rats (3.6 +/- 0.6 vs. 5.5 +/- 0.3, p < 0.01) and in sham-operated rats (3.4 +/- 0.7 vs. 5.1 +/- 0.4, p < 0.05). The results of this study indicate that estrogen can modify the autotomy behavior, an indicator of neuropathic pain, in rats after nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Tsao
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Veterans General Hospital-Taipei, and College of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan/ROC
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19
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Maggi R, Ma ZQ, Pimpinelli F, Maggi A, Martini L. Decrease of the number of opioid receptors and of the responsiveness to morphineduring neuronal differentiation induced by 17beta-estradiol in estrogen receptor-transfected neuroblastoma cells (SK-ER3). Neuroendocrinology 1999; 69:54-62. [PMID: 9892851 DOI: 10.1159/000054403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens modulate the density of opioid receptors in selected brain areas; however, it is not clear whether they exert such an effect directly on the cells which express the opioid receptors. Therefore, we analyzed the binding of [3H]-diprenorphine in human neuroblastoma cells stably transfected with the estrogen receptor cDNA (SK-ER3 cell line). A 16-hour exposure of these cells with 1 nM 17beta-estradiol induces a progressive morphological differentiation which appears clearly established 6 days after the suspension of the treatment. The binding of [3H]-diprenorphine was then measured immediately after the exposure to 17beta-estradiol (16 h) as well as 6 days later. The results shows that the number of opioid receptors in SK-ER3 cells is unaffected at 16 h but appears significantly reduced at 6 days. This effect is blocked by the estrogen antagonist ICI-182780, and is coincident to a decrease of the inhibitory effect of morphine on cyclic AMP accumulation. Binding experiments performed using selective ligands suggest that the micro subclass of opioid receptors is down-regulated by estradiol in SK-ER3 cells.
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MESH Headings
- Cell Differentiation/drug effects
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cyclic AMP/metabolism
- Diprenorphine/metabolism
- Estradiol/pharmacology
- Humans
- Morphine/pharmacology
- Narcotic Antagonists/metabolism
- Neuroblastoma
- Neurons/physiology
- Receptors, Estrogen/genetics
- Receptors, Estrogen/physiology
- Receptors, Opioid/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/metabolism
- Transfection
- Tritium
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- R Maggi
- Department of Endocrinology, Institute of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Italy.
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20
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Kow LM, Pfaff DW. Mapping of neural and signal transduction pathways for lordosis in the search for estrogen actions on the central nervous system. Behav Brain Res 1998; 92:169-80. [PMID: 9638959 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(97)00189-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen can act on the brain to regulate various biological functions and behavior. In attempts to elucidate the estrogen action, the rodent female reproductive behavior, lordosis, was used as a model. Lordosis is an estrogen-dependent reflexive behavior and, hence, is mediated by discrete neural pathways that are modulated by estrogen. Therefore, a strategy of mapping the pathways, both neural and biochemical, and examining them for estrogen effect was used to localize and subsequently analyze the central action of estrogen. Using various experimental approaches, an 'inverted Y-shaped' neural pathway both sufficient and essential for mediating lordosis was defined. The top portion is a descending pathway conveying the permissive estrogen influence which originated from hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus relayed via midbrain periaqueductal grey down to medullary reticular formation, the top of the spino-bulbo-spinal reflex arc at the bottom. This estrogen influence alters the input-output relationship, shifting the output toward more excitation. With this shift in output, estrogen can enable the otherwise ineffective lordosis-triggering sensory stimuli to elicit lordosis. In the ventromedial nucleus, the origin of the estrogen influence, a multidisciplinary approach was used to map intracellular signaling pathways. A phosphoinositide pathway involving a specific G protein and the activation of protein kinase C was found to be involved in the mediation of lordosis as well as a probable target of the permissive estrogen action. The action of estrogen on this signal transduction pathway, a potentiation, is consistent with and, hence, may be an underlying mechanism for the estrogen influenced shift toward excitation. Thus, further investigation on this specific signal transduction pathway should be helpful in elucidating the action of estrogen on the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Kow
- The Rockefeller University, Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, New York, NY 10021-6399, USA.
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21
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Abstract
Previous studies indicate that an acute injection of morphine does not effect the level of opioid peptides and their mRNA in the brain. However, due to the presence of a large pool of mRNA and possible opposing changes in turnover rate it is often difficult to visualize the transitory and relatively small alterations in gene transcription by examining mRNA level. Therefore, in situ hybridization with probes directed against intronic sequences to measure the primary transcript of proenkephalin (PPE) mRNA (heteronucleic RNA, hnRNA) in the rat brain following morphine administration was used in this study. The distribution of the hybridization signal of probes against both the A and B intron of the PPE gene were identical and coincide with the distribution PPE mRNA. Thus, to increase the sensitivity of this assay both probes were concurrently hybridized. Female and male Sprague-Dawley rats were gonadectomized and injected with morphine (10 mg/kg, SC). We detected no changes in PPE mRNA levels in the striatum, olfactory tubercle (OT) and n. accumbens core (NAC) at any time following morphine administration. However, from 0.5 h until 24 h following morphine injection, the levels of PPE hnRNA in NAC and OT but not in the dorsal striatum were significantly decreased. The level of c-fos mRNA was increased only the dorsal striatum following morphine injections. These data show that morphine administration can acutely change opioid peptide gene transcription. The observed decrease of PPE hnRNA levels for 24 h following a single morphine injection may indicate its importance for the development of acute and chronic dependence. However, the significance of these alterations in PPE gene transcription in term of the acute effect of morphine is not clear, because the steady-state level of mRNA was not changed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Y Yukhananov
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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22
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Frye CA, Bock BC, Kanarek RB. Hormonal milieu affects tailflick latency in female rats and may be attenuated by access to sucrose. Physiol Behav 1992; 52:699-706. [PMID: 1329123 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(92)90400-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The steroid hormones estrogen (E) and progesterone (P) are known to modify pain sensitivity; however, the relative role of each of these hormones in this process is not well understood. To systematically investigate the effects of E and P on nociception, pain sensitivity was assessed under several hormone conditions. Tailflick (TF) latencies were measured every other day in 10 cycling female rats and 10 female rats during luteal functioning (pseudopregnancy). Thirty ovariectomized (OVX) rats were tested for TF latency following administration of 10 micrograms estradiol benzoate (EB) and either 0.0, 0.5, or 1.0 mg of P. Significant differences in TF latency were seen across days of the estrous cycle but not during luteal functioning. Tailflick latencies during luteal functioning were elevated relative to latencies in normally cycling animals. Among OVX rats, those administered EB and P (1.0 mg) displayed significant reductions in TF latency compared to vehicle controls. As a separate line of research indicated that consumption of highly palatable foods modified pain sensitivity, whether chronic sucrose consumption might overide the influence of hormones on nociception was examined. Ovariectomized rats given EB and P (0.0, 0.5, or 1.0 mg) were allowed chronic exposure to a 32% sucrose solution. Our preliminary findings suggest that chronic sucrose consumption attenuates hormonally induced differences in nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Frye
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155
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