DNA repair assays as tests for environmental mutagens. A report of the U.S. EPA Gene-Tox Program

The presence of erionite in North American geologies and the estimated mesothelioma potency by region

OBJECTIVE

Erionite is a naturally occurring fibrous mineral found in soils in some geographical regions. Known for its potency for causing mesothelioma in the Cappadocia region of Turkey, the erionite fiber has attracted interest in the United States due to its presence in a band of rock that extends from Mexico to Montana. There are few toxicology studies of erionite, but all show it to have unusually high chronic toxicity. Despite its high potency compared to asbestos fibers, erionite has no occupational or environmental exposure limits. This paper takes what has been learned about the chemical and physical characteristics of the various forms of asbestos (chrysotile, amosite, anthophyllite, and crocidolite) and predicts the potency of North American erionite fibers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on the fiber potency model in Korchevskiy et al. (2019) and the available published information on erionite, the estimated mesothelioma potency factors (the proportion of mesothelioma mortality per unit cumulative exposure (f/cc-year)) for erionites in the western United States were determined.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The model predicted potency factors ranged from 0.19 to 11.25 (average ∼3.5), depending on the region. For reference, crocidolite (the most potent commercial form of asbestos) is assigned a potency factor ∼0.5.

CONCLUSION

The model predicted mesothelioma potency of Turkish erionite (4.53) falls in this same range of potencies as erionite found in North America. Although it can vary by region, a reasonable ratio of average mesothelioma potency based on this model is 3,000:500:100:1 comparing North American erionite, crocidolite, amosite, and chrysotile (from most potent to least potent).

The Fast-Halo Assay for the Detection of DNA Damage

The need for express screening of the DNA damaging potential of chemicals has progressively increased over the past 20 years due to the wide number of new synthetic molecules to be evaluated, as well as the adoption of more stringent chemical regulations such as the EU REACH and risk reduction politics. In this regard, DNA diffusion assays such as the microelectrophoretic comet assay paved the way for rapid genotoxicity testing. A more significant simplification and speeding up of the experimental processes was achieved with the fast halo assay (FHA) described in the present chapter. FHA operates at the single cell level and relies on radial dispersion of the fragments of damaged DNA from intact nuclear DNA. The fragmented DNA is separated by diffusion in an alkaline solvent and is stained, visualized, and finally quantified using computer-assisted image analysis programs. This permits the rapid assessment of the extent of DNA breakage caused by different types of DNA lesions. FHA has proven to be sensitive, reliable, and flexible. This is currently one of the simplest, cheapest, and quickest assays for studying DNA damage and repair in living cells. It does not need expensive reagents or electrophoretic equipment and requires only 40 min to prepare samples for computer-based quantification. This technique can be particularly useful in rapid genotoxicity assessments and in high-throughput genotoxicity screenings.

Follow-up actions from positive results of in vitro genetic toxicity testing

Appropriate follow-up actions and decisions are needed when evaluating and interpreting clear positive results obtained in the in vitro assays used in the initial genotoxicity screening battery (i.e., the battery of tests generally required by regulatory authorities) to assist in overall risk-based decision making concerning the potential effects of human exposure to the agent under test. Over the past few years, the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Health and Environmental Sciences Institute (HESI) Project Committee on the Relevance and Follow-up of Positive Results in In Vitro Genetic Toxicity (IVGT) Testing developed a decision process flow chart to be applied in case of clear positive results in vitro. It provides for a variety of different possibilities and allows flexibility in choosing follow-up action(s), depending on the results obtained in the initial battery of assays and available information. The intent of the Review Subgroup was not to provide a prescriptive testing strategy, but rather to reinforce the concept of weighing the totality of the evidence. The Review Subgroup of the IVGT committee highlighted the importance of properly analyzing the existing data, and considering potential confounding factors (e.g., possible interactions with the test systems, presence of impurities, irrelevant metabolism), and chemical modes of action when analyzing and interpreting positive results in the in vitro genotoxicity assays and determining appropriate follow-up testing. The Review Subgroup also examined the characteristics, strengths, and limitations of each of the existing in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays to determine their usefulness in any follow-up testing.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase activation and circulatory shock

Sepsis is associated with increased production of reactive oxidant species. Oxidative and nitrosative stress can lead to activation of the nuclear enzyme poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), with subsequent loss of cellular functions. Activation of PARP may dramatically lower the intracellular concentration of its substrate, NAD thus slowing the rate of glycolysis, electron transport and subsequently ATP formation. This process can result in cell dysfunction and cell death. In addition, PARP enhances the expression of various pro-inflammatory mediators, via activation of NF-kappaB, MAP kinase and AP-1 and other signal transduction pathways. Preclinical studies in various rodent and large animal models demonstrate that PARP inhibition or PAR deficiency exerts beneficial effects on the haemodynamic and metabolic alterations associated with septic and haemorrhagic shock. Recent human data also support the role of PARP in septic shock: In a retrospective study in 25 septic patients, an increase in plasma troponin level was related to increased mortality risk. In patients who died, significant myocardial damage was detected, and histological analysis of heart showed inflammatory infiltration, increased collagen deposition, and derangement of mitochondrial criptae. Immunohistochemical staining for poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), the product of activated PARP was demonstrated in septic hearts. There was a positive correlation between PAR staining and troponin I; and a correlation of PAR staining and LVSSW. Thus, there is significant PARP activation in animal models subjected to circulatory shock, as well as in the hearts of septic patients. Based on the interventional studies in animals and the correlations observed in patients we propose that PARP activation may be, in part responsible for the cardiac depression and haemodynamic failure seen in humans with severe sepsis. Interestingly, recent studies reveal that the protective effects of PARP inhibitors are predominant in male animals, and are not apparent in female animals. Oestrogen, by providing a baseline inhibitory effect on PARP activation, may be partially responsible for this gender difference.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activation by reactive nitrogen species--relevance for the pathogenesis of inflammation

Oxidative and nitrosative stress triggers DNA strand breakage, which then activates the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Nitrogen-derived reactive oxidant species capable of involving DNA single strand breakage and PARP activation include peroxynitrite (the reaction product of nitric oxide and superoxide), but not nitric oxide per se. Activation of PARP may dramatically lower the intracellular concentration of its substrate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, thus slowing the rate of glycolysis, electron transport, and subsequently ATP formation. This process can result in cell dysfunction and cell death. Here we review the role of reactive nitrogen species in the process of PARP activation, followed by the effect of pharmacological inhibition or genetic inactivation of PARP on the course of various forms of inflammation.

Genetic toxicology: web resources

Genetic toxicology is the scientific discipline dealing with the effects of chemical, physical and biological agents on the heredity of living organisms. The Internet offers a wide range of online digital resources for the field of Genetic Toxicology. The history of genetic toxicology and electronic data collections are reviewed. Web-based resources at US National Library of Medicine (NLM), including MEDLINE, PUBMED, Gateway, Entrez, and TOXNET, are discussed. Search strategies and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) are reviewed in the context of genetic toxicology. The TOXNET group of databases are discussed with emphasis on those databases with genetic toxicology content including GENE-TOX, TOXLINE, Hazardous Substances Data Bank, Integrated Risk Information System, and Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System. Location of chemical information including chemical structure and linkage to health and regulatory information using CHEMIDPLUS at NLM and other databases is reviewed. Various government agencies have active genetic toxicology research programs or use genetic toxicology data to assist fulfilling the agency's mission. Online resources at the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Institutes of Environmental Health Sciences, and the National Toxicology Program (NTP) are outlined. Much of the genetic toxicology for pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals and pesticides that is performed in the world is regulatory-driven. Regulatory web resources are presented for the laws mandating testing, guidelines on study design, Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations, and requirements for electronic data collection and reporting. The Internet provides a range of other supporting resources to the field of genetic toxicology. The web links for key professional societies and journals in genetic toxicology are listed. Distance education, educational media resources, and job placement services are also available online in the field of genetic toxicology. As molecular biology and computational tools improve, new areas within genetic toxicology such as structural activity relationship analysis, mutational spectra databases and toxicogenomics, now have resources online as well.

Assessment of DNA-protein crosslinks in the course of aging in two mouse strains by use of a modified alkaline filter elution applied to whole tissue samples

Two different mouse strains have been used for determination of age dependence of DNA-protein crosslinks by alkaline filter elution: a long lived laboratory strain, NMRI and an accelerated senescence-prone, short lived strain, SAMP1. Five organs were selected: Brain, kidney, lung, heart and liver. Remarkably in all five organs of short lived SAMPI mice crosslinks increased significantly with age. In NMRI however only in brain and heart a significant rise in old age has been observed, while in the other organs there was no increase in DNA-protein crosslinking. Appreciable mitotic activity which is lacking in brain and heart could be the reason for this difference. Poor repair in all five organs could be an important component for the multiple ailments and shortened life span in SAMP1 mice.

Role of poly(ADP-ribose)synthetase in inflammation

Peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radicals are potent initiators of DNA single strand breakage, which is an obligatory stimulus for the activation of the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose)synthetase (PARS). Rapid activation of PARS depletes the intracellular concentration of its substrate, NAD+, slowing the rate of glycolysis, electron transport and ATP formation. This process can result in acute cell dysfunction and cell necrosis. Accordingly, inhibitors of PARS protect against cell death under these conditions. In addition to the direct cytotoxic pathway regulated by DNA injury and PARS activation, PARS also appears to modulate the course of inflammation by regulating the expression of a number of genes, including the gene for intercellular adhesion molecule 1, collagenase and the inducible nitric oxide synthase. The research into the role of PARS in inflammatory conditions is now supported by novel tools, such as novel, potent inhibitors of PARS, and genetically engineered animals lacking the gene for PARS. In vivo data demonstrate that inhibition of PARS protects against various forms of inflammation, including zymosan or endotoxin induced multiple organ failure, arthritis, allergic encephalomyelitis, and diabetic islet cell destruction. Pharmacological inhibition of PARS may be a promising novel approach for the experimental therapy of various forms of inflammation.

Genetic toxicity of 2-acetylaminofluorene, 2-aminofluorene and some of their metabolites and model metabolites

2-Acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene are among the most intensively studied of all chemical mutagens and carcinogens. Fundamental research findings concerning the metabolism of 2-acetylaminofluorene to electrophilic derivatives, the interaction of these derivatives with DNA, and the carcinogenic and mutagenic responses that are associated with the resulting DNA damage have formed the foundation upon which much of genetic toxicity testing is based. The parent compounds and their proximate and ultimate mutagenic and carcinogenic derivatives have been evaluated in a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic assays for mutagenesis and DNA damage. The reactive derivatives are active in virtually all systems, while 2-acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene are active in most systems that provide adequate metabolic activation. Knowledge of the structures of the DNA adducts formed by 2-acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene, the effects of the adducts on DNA conformation and synthesis, adduct distribution in tissues, cells and DNA, and adduct repair have been used to develop hypotheses to understand the genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of these compounds. Molecular analysis of mutations produced in cell-free, bacterial, in vitro mammalian, and intact animal systems have recently been used to extend these hypotheses.

Enhancement of the uvrA gene dosage reduces pyrimidine dimer excision in UV-irradiated Escherichia coli

E. coli possesses an efficient repair mechanism able to remove pyrimidine dimers from UV-irradiated DNA, which is catalyzed by UvrABC endonuclease. In E. coli B/r Hcr+ cells transformed with a multicopy plasmid harboring a gene coding for UvrA, the excision capacity was greatly reduced. The course of thymine dimer excision was investigated using the enzymatic as well as the radiochromatographic method and the results are discussed in term of nonspecific interaction between the excess of UvrA protein and undamaged DNA duplex.

Alkali-labile sites in daughter DNA of damaged Escherichia coli do not reflect apyrimidinic sites

Apyrimidinic sites arising after excision of uracil incorporated into DNA daughter strands might constitute alkali-labile sites. The hypothesis was checked in the present paper and the data obtained do not support it.

Differential induction of DNA strand breaks by nitrosamines in the rat liver and esophagus

Hepatic and esophageal nuclei were isolated from Sprague-Dawley rats treated with 5 mg/kg dimethylnitrosamine (DMN), 100 mg/kg diethylnitrosamine (DEN) and 2.5 mg and 10 mg/kg methylbenzylnitrosamine (MBN) and subjected to alkaline elution to determine DNA strand breaks and their subsequent repair. Results obtained showed that hepatic nuclei isolated from rats 4 h after treatment by either DMN or DEN had about 60% of the DNA eluting through the filter. However, at 12 h post treatment, while about 50% of the single-strand breaks in dimethylnitrosamine treated rats were repaired, only about 10-15% of such breaks induced by DEN were repaired in the liver. That DEN is a more effective inducer of hepatic preneoplastic lesions could thus be attributed to this slow repair of the DEN induced lesions. Strand breaks were neither induced by DMN in the esophagus nor by MBN in the liver, the nontarget tissues. More surprising, however, was the finding that MBN induced little or no single-strand breaks in its target tissue, the esophagus. Furthermore, there was no evidence for DNA-protein cross-linking or alkali labile sites in the esophageal DNA. The results indicate that DNA damage induced by the initiating carcinogen in the target tissue may not necessarily involve strand breaks.

Biomonitoring of DNA damage by alkaline filter elution

The majority of DNA lesions resulting from interactions of carcinogens with DNA are usually either single strand breaks or lesions which are converted to single strand breaks by treatment of DNA with alkaline solutions. A sensitive method of detecting DNA single strand breaks is the alkaline filter elution of DNA. We started to test this method for biomonitoring occupational exposure with sensitive experimental conditions using pH 12.6, where most alkali-labile DNA lesions are converted to single strand breaks. Under our conditions statistically significant differences can be detected between the elution rates of untreated V79 cells and cells treated with [3H]-thymidine 24 h prior to the elution. Statistically significant increases were detected in the elution rates of male smoking automobile mechanics and male smoking painters compared to non-smoking controls. No statistically significant differences were detected in the elution rates of male non-smoking automobile mechanics and male workers with a suspected exposure to halogenated aromatics compared to male controls. No statistically significant differences were observed in the elution rates of female smoking dry-cleaning workers compared to female smoking controls. Our experience showed that the alkaline elution technique can be a valuable tool for monitoring DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes in man.

Chemical carcinogens. A review and analysis of the literature of selected chemicals and the establishment of the Gene-Tox Carcinogen Data Base. A report of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gene-Tox Program

The literature on 506 selected chemicals has been evaluated for evidence that these chemicals induce tumors in experimental animals and this assessment comprises the Gene-Tox Carcinogen Data Base. Three major sources of information were used to create this evaluated data base: all 185 chemicals determined by the International Agency for Research on Cancer to have Sufficient evidence of carcinogenic activity in experimental animals, 28 selected chemicals bioassayed for carcinogenic activity by the National Toxicology Program/National Cancer Institute and found to induce tumors in mice and rats, and 293 selected chemicals which had been evaluated in genetic toxicology and related bioassays as determined from previous Gene-Tox reports. The literature data on the 239 chemicals were analyzed by the Gene-Tox Carcinogenesis Panel in an organized, rational and consistent manner. Criteria were established to assess individual studies employing single chemicals and 4 categories of response were developed: Positive, Negative, Inconclusive (Equivocal) and Inconclusive. After evaluating each of the individual studies on the 293 chemicals, the Panel placed each of the 506 chemicals in an overall classification category based on the strength of the evidence indicating the presence or absence of carcinogenic effects. An 8-category decision scheme was established using a modified version of the International Agency for Research on Cancer approach. This scheme included two categories of Positive (Sufficient and Limited), two categories of Negative (Sufficient and Limited), a category of Equivocal (the evidence of carcinogenicity from well-conducted and well-reported lifetime studies had uncertain significance and was neither clearly positive nor negative), and three categories of Inadequate (the evidence of carcinogenicity was insufficient to make a decision, however, the data suggested a positive or negative indication). Of the 506 chemicals in the Gene-Tox Carcinogen Data Base, 252 were evaluated as Sufficient Positive, 99 as Limited Positive, 40 as Sufficient Negative, 21 as Limited Negative, 1 as Equivocal, 13 as Inadequate with the data suggesting a positive indication, 32 as Inadequate with the data suggesting a negative indication, and 48 Inadequate with the data not suggesting any indication of activity. This data base was analyzed and examined according to chemical class, using a 29 chemical class scheme.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Assembly and preliminary analysis of a genotoxicity data base for predicting carcinogens

With a view to developing methodologies for predicting the carcinogenicity of chemicals on the basis of the results of short-term assays and selecting highly predictive batteries of short-term tests, a data base was assembled. The present is a compilation of data extracted from the reports of Gene-Tox working groups, Salmonella mutagenicity data obtained from the U.S. National Toxicology Program and the Environmental Mutagen Information Center and results from BHK21 transformation assays.

Longevity-dependent organ-specific accumulation of DNA damage in two closely related murine species

To measure directly the accumulation of DNA damage with age, and to understand better the effect of modulators of DNA damage in vivo, the DNA of brain, liver, and kidney of two mice from different families, Mus musculus and Peromyscus leucopus, have been examined for age-dependent accumulation of single-strand breaks plus alkali-labile bonds, by the alkaline sucrose sedimentation method. These two species of small rodents are closely related taxonomically, yet differ significantly in maximum achievable lifespan. Using the reciprocal of the number average molecular weight for estimation of DNA size, these analyses indicate that: (a) DNA damage does not measurably accumulate in brain tissue; (b) the accumulation of DNA damage was more pronounced in hepatic DNA than other tissue DNA; and (c) the rate of accumulation of DNA damage in liver and kidney cells with age was greater in the shorter-lived species (M. musculus) and was inversely proportional to maximum achievable lifespan. There are suggestions that a similar threshold might exist for tolerance of DNA damage in the two species in specific organs, and that these species differ in the rate at which this threshold is reached as a function of maximum achievable lifespan.