The provision of female sterilization in São Paulo, Brazil: a study among low income women

Medicalization, reproductive agency, and the desire for surgical sterilization among low-income women in urban Brazil

This article draws on data from ethnographic fieldwork in an urban housing project to examine the social context and meanings of surgical sterilization for low-income women in Brazil. Low-income women resort to sterilization because they distrust or are unsatisfied with alternative methods and because it helps them to fulfill the requirements of modern, responsible motherhood. Although sterilization is an option among few alternatives, and one that has subjected women to greater medical management and intervention, I argue that sterilization also represents poor women's active struggle to improve their lives and to resist the burdens placed on them by unequal gender relations. This article contributes to a growing anthropological literature that demonstrates how reproduction has become a central site where social values are constituted and contested, and it details women's diverse responses to the process of medicalization.

Características dos candidatos à esterilização cirúrgica e os fatores associados ao tipo de procedimento

Em 1999, a Secretaria Municipal de Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil, implantou a oferta de métodos de esterilização cirúrgicos, de acordo com a legislação vigente. Este estudo objetivou caracterizar os candidatos à esterilização cirúrgica e estudar as variáveis associadas ao tipo de procedimento. Foram pesquisados 95 prontuários de candidatos e realizada análise estatística por meio de regressão logística e do teste exato de Fisher, considerando-se o nível de significância de p = 0,05. A maioria dos candidatos são casais estáveis, de baixa escolaridade e baixa renda, satisfeitos com o número de filhos e que já haviam tentado limitar a prole com o uso de anticoncepcionais reversíveis. A média de idade era de 34,2 anos; 45,3% se submeteram à esterilização feminina; 35,8%, à vasectomia, e 18,9% não obtiveram o procedimento. A chance de o homem, com 35 anos ou mais, fazer vasectomia é 6,1 vezes a do homem mais jovem (OR = 6,1; IC95%: 2,4-16,4); submetem-se à vasectomia mais homens casados do que os que coabitam (OR = 4,0; IC95%: 1,5-12,4) e mulheres com quatro filhos ou mais fazem mais laqueadura do que aquelas com menos de quatro filhos (OR = 3,1; IC95%: 1,1-8,5).

Número ideal de filhos como fator de risco para laqueadura tubária

O objetivo deste artigo é avaliar a associação entre o número ideal de filhos (NIF) e a realização da laqueadura. Foi feito um estudo de caso-controle aninhado, com base em uma análise secundária de dados obtidos em um estudo de coorte sobre a saúde reprodutiva de mulheres em Campinas, São Paulo, Brasil, que teve como sujeitos 3.878 mulheres, das quais 1.012 eram laqueadas (casos). A relação entre NIF e o número de nascidos vivos (NV) foi dividida em duas categorias (NIF > NV e NIF ¾ NV). Foram calculados os riscos relativos estimados (odds ratio) para a realização de laqueadura e seus respectivos intervalos de confiança (IC) 95% para a relação NIF/NV, estratificando-se para outras dez variáveis. Todas as variáveis preditoras foram incluídas em um modelo de regressão logística para identificar os fatores independentemente associados à esterilização definitiva. Observou-se que o risco de laqueadura foi maior entre as mulheres com NIF < NV, maior idade, maior renda familiar, com companheiro, com mais de duas gestações, maior número de partos, com menor número de abortos e sem trabalho remunerado.

Provision of female sterilization in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

Forty percent of Brazilian married women from 15 to 49 years of age have undergone surgical sterilization. The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that all scientifically proven contraceptive methods should be available to all citizens, but it was only in 1997 that specific family planning legislation was approved. This study examines physicians' perceptions and attitudes towards the current provision of female sterilization and its legal implications, as well as women's experience with obtaining and undergoing sterilization. The study design included: (1) an investigation of the hospitals and health professionals and (2) a survey of women sterilized in combination with cesarean delivery in 1998. The survey showed they had a median of 3 living children, 60.0% had been sterilized between 30 and 39 years of age, and 61.0% had paid for the procedure. Many women reported previous method failure and adverse effects with hormonal contraceptives. Women with less schooling and lower socioeconomic status had more children and had begun childbearing and had been sterilized at younger ages than women with more schooling and higher socioeconomic status. Inequalities related to reproduction were strongly associated with teenage pregnancy and inadequate knowledge about contraceptives.

Fertility and reproductive history of sterilized and non-sterilized women in Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

This article compares sterilized and non-sterilized women in relation to socio-demographic characteristics, reproductive history, and cohabitation status. Women from 30 to 49 years of age and residing in Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil, were interviewed with a pre-tested and structured questionnaire: 236 women sterilized at least five years before the interview and 236 non-sterilized women. The sterilized women were significantly more likely to be married or cohabiting, to be younger when they began cohabiting, and to have been in the union longer than the non-sterilized women. They also began childbearing at an earlier age and had a history of more pregnancies and more live births than non-sterilized women. Factors associated with a history of 3 or more live births at the time of the interview were surgical sterilization, younger age at first childbirth, older age at the interview, recognition of fewer contraceptive methods, and lower per capita income. The article concludes that sterilization generally appears to be the consequence of higher fertility in a group of women who initiate childbearing early in life, although its role in preventing these women from having even larger families may also have a demographic impact.

Frustrated demand for postpartum female sterilization in Brazil

During the last three decades, Brazilians have relied almost exclusively on two contraceptive methods, the pill and female sterilization, with sterilization use increasing over time. Until a new law was passed in 1997, sterilization was virtually illegal and not covered by either public or private health insurance. It was, however, frequently provided in public and private hospitals in conjunction with a cesarean section. The new law regulating sterilization provided for reimbursement for interval sterilizations by public health insurance, but placed restrictions on availability intended to reduce the use of cesareans. These restrictions included the prohibition of postpartum sterilizations. This paper focuses on women's sterilization intentions during pregnancy and their experiences postpartum. In a prospective study of 1612 pregnant women carried out in four Brazilian cities, there was substantial demand for postpartum sterilization in both the private and public sectors among women who wanted no more children. However, public patients were much less likely to be sterilized than private patients. Thus, the new law may not have reduced inequities in access or, paradoxically, the incentive for unnecessary cesarean sections.

Beyond the simple economics of cesarean section birthing: women's resistance to social inequality

This research explored the reasons for women's preferences for cesarean section births in Pelotas, Brazil. It is argued that women strategize and appropriate both medical knowledge and the technology of cesarean sections as a creative form of responding to larger public debates (and the practices that produced them) on the need for and causes of (de)medicalization. Questioning the reasons why some women engage more actively in this process than others elucidates the ways local forms of power engage gender, economic and medical ideologies. The current debate on why some women prefer c-section deliveries, or indeed if they really do at all, has diverted attention from the utility of the technology itself. This paper argues that for some women, the effort to medicalize the birth process represents a practical solution to problems found within the medical system itself. I end by exploring the socio-biological conditions that have produced a need for the technology.

[Characteristics of anticontraception methods used in São Paulo State, Brazil (correction)]

OBJECTIVE

To analyze data on contraceptive use in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, collected by the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) conducted in 1996.

METHODS

The study data were compared to 1986 DHS and 1996 data on the Brazilian population. Contraceptive use among married or cohabiting women was evaluated focusing on age, number of children, schooling, and age and timing of female sterilization. Statistical analysis was performed using Student t-test and Kendall's non-parametric test.

RESULTS

Unlike data on the Brazilian population, female sterilization rates were steady in the State of São Paulo during the studied period. The same contraceptive pattern is seen in both Brazil and São Paulo: women aged up to 30 years use largely pills; female sterilization predominates in women over 30, increasing with the number of children and decreasing with years of schooling. Male methods have also increased in recent years, being greater in São Paulo than in Brazil. São Paulo also shows a greater variety of reversible contraceptive methods.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there were some differences, the prevalence of only two contraceptive methods in both Brazil and São Paulo suggests a tendency regarding the contraceptive methods offered and in reproductive health in the view of new regulations on family planning.

Social impacts of technological diffusion: prenatal diagnosis and induced abortion in Brazil

Scientific and technological development plays an essential part in shaping contemporary societies, and medicine and health care are considered to be particularly receptive to the incorporation of new concepts, techniques and products, producing impacts not only on the health problems for which they were originally intended, but also varied 'side-effects', less frequently recognised and studied. In this study the point of departure was the hypothesis that the intensive diffusion in Brazil of prenatal ultrasound would create new problems for individuals (pregnant women, their families and health professionals) and society in coping with foetal malformations, due to the existence of a very restrictive induced abortion legislation. The objective of the research was to study the social visibility of these problems, in the written mass media. The period under analysis went from 1991 to 1996. The four most important daily newspapers and two medical council journals were studied, with a criteria oriented selection of articles, and their macrotextual thematic analysis. The results indicate that the basic elements in the relationships between medical technology, prenatal diagnosis, foetal malformations and induced abortions stayed the same along the period - a restrictive Penal Code, the public recognition of the disseminated and usually tolerated practice of induced abortion, done in risky conditions for the majority of women, with very evident consequences on maternal health, a divided Congress, a divided 'public opinion', religious opposition and new scientific and technological practices in health care. Nevertheless, tension between these 'contradictory' factors increases, so much so, that new elements are introduced which make an accommodation possible, without implying in major changes of position. This is achieved through the development of new alliances between Science, the judiciary and obstetrical leaders, which benefit individual initiatives, instead of leading to a public recognition of the problem and changes in the law.

Do women's attitudes towards abortion and contraceptive methods influence their option for sterilization?

This paper analyzes the attitudes of low-income women towards abortion and contraception. A survey was conducted in 1992 with a total of 3,149 childbearing-age women living on the outskirts of the Greater Metropolitan São Paulo Area. The study focuses on a sub-sample of 583 women. Attitudes of sterilized and non-sterilized women are compared. Women, especially those sterilized, found the most important attribute of a contraceptive method to be its effectiveness. Women currently taking the pill were less likely than those sterilized to agree that sterilization was the best method because of its effectiveness. Sterilized women were less likely than non-sterilized women to trust the pill. Sterilized women were more likely than non-sterilized to have reported adverse effects from the pill. Most women found abortion unacceptable except in the case of risk to the woman's life. Women using more effective methods showed stronger negative attitudes towards abortion. The tendency to be sterilized while still young was associated with more negative attitudes towards abortion. Family planning activities in basic health care services should include individual counseling for contraceptive use.

O arrependimento após a esterilização feminina

A esterilização feminina é o método anticoncepcional mais usado pelas mulheres brasileiras, embora este método não seja oferecido pelo sistema de saúde. Ele não tem sido recomendado pelos Conselhos de Medicina como um procedimento ético devido à sua ambigüidade legal. Em um estudo realizado na região metropolitana de São Paulo entre março e julho de 1992 foram entrevistadas 3.149 mulheres sobre o uso de anticoncepcionais. Delas, 407 mulheres com menos de 40 anos e que haviam sido esterilizadas há pelo menos um ano foram questionadas sobre a adaptação após a cirurgia. Entrevistas em profundidade com 15 mulheres que estavam arrependidas foram analisadas para um melhor entendimento da natureza do arrependimento. Os resultados incluem: a adaptação após a esterilização, a oferta da cirurgia, o conhecimento dos métodos anticoncepcionais, o uso prévio de métodos entre as mulheres esterilizadas e os fatores associados ao arrependimento. Os dados qualitativos enfocam a falta de informação das mulheres esterilizadas. Os resultados mostram a necessidade de regulamentar este procedimento de forma a salvaguardar a saúde das mulheres, seus direitos reprodutivos e os princípios fundamentais da ética médica.