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Yuan L, Zhao Z, Yuan Y, Kang C, Xiao Q, Wei X, Hao W. Immunotoxicity of 2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole in BALB/c mice with different vitamin B6 nutritional statuses. Toxicology 2024; 505:153836. [PMID: 38768702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Caramel color is a widely used food pigment, and 2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) is a by-products of Class III caramel color. Some studies have shown that THI can reduce the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes. However, the comprehensive mechanism of THI immunotoxicity requires further study. In this study, the effects of THI on lymphocyte count, humoral immunity, cellular immunity and nonspecific immunity were determined and the effect of the nutritional status of VB6 on THI immunotoxicity was evaluated. Female BALB/c mice were divided into 3 groups and fed chow containing different doses of VB6: VB6-normal (6 mg/kg VB6), VB6-deprived (0.5 mg/kg VB6) or VB6-enhanced (12 mg/kg VB6) feed. Each group was further divided into 4 subgroups and treated with THI (0.5, 2.5 or 12.5 mg/kg bw) or the solvent control by gavage for 30 days. The thymic cortical thickness was measured with ViewPoint; the proportions of major immune cells and T cells in peripheral blood and tissues were detected via flow cytometry; the transformation and proliferation abilities of T and B cells were detected via T and B lymphocyte proliferation assays; NK cell activity was assessed via lactate dehydrogenase assays; humoral immune function was assessed via plaque-forming cell assays; and the immune function of T lymphocytes was assessed via delayed type hypersensitivity assays. The results showed that compared with those in the corresponding control group, the white blood cell count and lymphocyte count decreased significantly in all the VB6-deprived groups, in the 2.5 and 12.5 mg/kg VB6 groups, and in the 12.5 mg/kg VB6-enhanced group. With increasing THI dose, the thymic cortical layer became thinner. In the thymus, THI increased the proportions of CD3+ T cells and mature CD8+ T cells and decreased the proportions of immature double-positive, double-negative T cells and CD69-expressing lymphocytes. The proportions of naïve T cells and Tcm (central memory T) cells related to homing decreased. The proportion of mature T cells in the spleen decreased significantly. The proliferation of T cells stimulated by ConA decreased after THI exposure. VB6-deficient mice were more sensitive to THI immunotoxicity, and supplementation with VB6 had a certain protective effect on these mice. The results of the PFC and NK cell activity assays indicated that THI exposure might not affect humoral immune or innate immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilan Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Yue Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Chenping Kang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Qianqian Xiao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Xuetao Wei
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Weidong Hao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China.
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2
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Zhao Z, Yuan L, Yuan Y, Kang C, Ma Y, Liu Q, Wang X, Xiao Q, Meng Q, Wei X, Hao W. Effects of 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole exposure during gestation and lactation on maternity and offspring immune function in Balb/c mice. Toxicology 2023; 495:153601. [PMID: 37531992 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI), a by-product of Class Ⅲ caramel color, is generally recognized to cause lymphopenia in mammals. However, it remains unknown whether THI exposure during gestation and lactation causes damage to the immune system of offspring. In this study, pregnant Balb/c mice were gavaged with 0, 0.5, 2.5 and 12.5 mg/kg THI from gestation day (GD) 6 to postanal day (PND) 21, after which we treated another batch of dams from GD6 to PND21 and the offspring for 3 weeks after weaning with 0, 2, 10, 50 mg/L THI in drinking water respectively, and investigated the immunological anomalies of dams and offspring. The results showed that lymphopenia was observed in dams but not in weaning pups on PND21, which were exposed to THI during gestation and lactation. 2 mg/L THI and 2.5 mg/kg THI began to cause a remarkable reduction of the numbers of white blood cells and lymphocytes in dams. Besides both the cellular and the humoral immune response was not affected in weaning pups, which were measured by plaque-forming cell (PFC) assay and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) assay respectively. Furthermore, THI could be detected in the plasma of dams with a dose-dependent manner, but not in that of both female and male weaning pups. In both male and female offspring being treated with 10 and 50 mg/L THI for another 3 weeks after weaning, lymphocytopenia was observed and T lymphocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ cells were significantly reduced in their spleens except lymph nodes. 10 and 50 mg/L THI treatment increased CD4+ and CD8+ single positive cells in thymus of female and male weaning mice. Mitogen-induced proliferation ability of T cells in the spleen and lymph nodes was impaired in female weaning mice exposed 50 mg/L THI, while male weaning mice treated with 10 and 50 mg/L THI showed impairment in the spleen but not lymph nodes. Based on the results in this study, no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for 3-week THI treatment in weaning mice was considered to be 2 mg/L (0.30 mg/kg bw for female mice and 0.34 mg/kg bw for male mice). And NOAEL for THI treatment in dams might be set to 0.5 mg/kg bw/day. Collectively from the perspective of NOAEL, offspring are not more sensitive than dams or adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Lilan Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Yue Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Chenping Kang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Yuhong Ma
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qianyi Liu
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiaoxia Wang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qianqian Xiao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qinghe Meng
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Xuetao Wei
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Weidong Hao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China.
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3
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Buczkowska M, Paciorek K, Kapcińska A, Górski M. Caramel colors in terms of scientific research, with particular
consideration of their toxicity. POSTEP HIG MED DOSW 2021. [DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.8497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Caramel colors, the most common food additives in the world, are divided into four classes (IIV),
marked with the symbols E150 a-d, respectively. Individual classes of caramel colors differ
from each other in physico-chemical properties and the method of preparation, which affects
the formation of various compounds that are important for the assessment of food safety A number of studies on all caramel classes of have been performed, including toxicokinetic,
genotoxic, carcinogenic and reproductive and developmental toxicity studies, which have
not shown harmful effects of these additives at doses not exceeding ADI. However, there is
an increasing number of scientific reports of the possible toxic effects present in caramels of
low-molecular compounds. Currently, three compounds are considered to be toxicologically
important and resulting from the possible concentration in the final product: 5-HMF (present
in all classes), 4(5)-MeI (present in caramel classes III and IV) or THI (present in caramel
class III). 4(5)-MeI has a neurotoxic effect and was considered in 2011 as a possible human
carcinogen (class 2B, according to IARC). In the case of THI, studies have confirmed its lymphopenic
activity, probably secondary to its immunosuppressive effect. Consequently, in the
1980s, JECFA set acceptable levels 4(5)-MeI and THI, for the caramel classes in which these
compounds may be present. The toxicity of 5-HMF has not been confirmed unequivocally,
but studies have shown that this compound is not neutral to living organisms.
Currently, most international organizations and scientific institutes recognize these additives
as safe for consumers, but at the same time scientists emphasize the need for further
research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Buczkowska
- Zakład Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu, Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny w Katowicach
| | - Kamila Paciorek
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Anna Kapcińska
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Michał Górski
- Szkoła Doktorska Śląskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Katowicach, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny
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Mateo-Fernández M, Alves-Martínez P, Del Río-Celestino M, Font R, Merinas-Amo T, Alonso-Moraga Á. Food Safety and Nutraceutical Potential of Caramel Colour Class IV Using In Vivo and In Vitro Assays. Foods 2019; 8:foods8090392. [PMID: 31491925 PMCID: PMC6770427 DOI: 10.3390/foods8090392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutraceutical activity of food is analysed to promote the healthy characteristics of diet where additives are highly used. Caramel is one of the most worldwide consumed additives and it is produced by heating natural carbohydrates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the food safety and the possible nutraceutical potential of caramel colour class IV (CAR). For this purpose, in vivo toxicity/antitoxicity, genotoxicity/antigenotoxicity and longevity assays were performed using the Drosophila melanogaster model. In addition, cytotoxicity, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, single cell gel electrophoresis and methylation status assays were conducted in the in vitro HL-60 human leukaemia cell line. Our results reported that CAR was neither toxic nor genotoxic and showed antigenotoxic effects in Drosophila. Furthermore, CAR induced cytotoxicity and hipomethylated sat-α repetitive element using HL-60 cell line. In conclusion, the food safety of CAR was demonstrated, since Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) was not reached in toxicity assay and any of the tested concentrations induced mutation rates higher than that of the concurrent control in D. melanogaster. On the other hand, CAR protected DNA from oxidative stress provided by hydrogen peroxide in Drosophila. Moreover, CAR showed chemopreventive activity and modified the methylation status of HL-60 cell line. Nevertheless, much more information about the mechanisms of gene therapies related to epigenetic modulation by food is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Mateo-Fernández
- Department of Genetic, Rabanales Campus, University of Córdoba (UCO), 14071 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Pilar Alves-Martínez
- Department of Genetic, Rabanales Campus, University of Córdoba (UCO), 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Mercedes Del Río-Celestino
- Agri-Food Laboratory, Council of Agriculture, Fisheries and Rural Development of Andalusia (CAPDER), 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Rafael Font
- Agri-Food Laboratory, Council of Agriculture, Fisheries and Rural Development of Andalusia (CAPDER), 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Tania Merinas-Amo
- Department of Genetic, Rabanales Campus, University of Córdoba (UCO), 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ángeles Alonso-Moraga
- Department of Genetic, Rabanales Campus, University of Córdoba (UCO), 14071 Córdoba, Spain
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Liang J, Cao P, Wang X, Gao P, Xu H, Ma N. Dietary intake assessment of caramel colours and their processing by-products 4-methylimidazole and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxy-butylimidazole for the Chinese population. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:1009-1019. [PMID: 31100047 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1615137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to assess the dietary intake of caramel colours and their by-products 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) for the Chinese population. Based on the typical and maximum reported use levels of caramel colours in 15 food categories, the dietary intakes of combined and single-class caramel colours of Classes I, III and IV were estimated with the food consumption data from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey. Using the mean values of 4-MEI and THI contents in Class III and Class IV Caramel colour samples, the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colours were derived. The results showed that the combined and individual average dietary caramel colour intakes for the Chinese population of different age groups were estimated to be 232-60.3 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for combined caramels, 5.9-29.2 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class I, 7.7-29.6 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class III, 21.2-54.3 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class IV, which were far below the group acceptable daily intake (ADI) and respective ADIs. The combined intake of 4-MEI from Class III and IV caramel colours was estimated to be 3.8-5.2 μg kg-1 bw day-1 on average, and 12.9-27.1 μg kg-1 bw day-1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The anticipated exposure to THI from Class III caramel colours was estimated to be 0.1-0.3 μg kg-1 bw day-1 on average and 0.5-1.7 μg kg-1 bw day-1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The dietary caramel colours intakes and the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colour for the Chinese population were considered to be of low health concern based on the present toxicological data. Soy sauce, vinegar and compound seasonings were found to be the main contributors to the dietary intake of caramel colours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Liang
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Pei Cao
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Xiaodan Wang
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Peng Gao
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Haibin Xu
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Ning Ma
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China.,b Research Institute of Health Dvelopment Strategies , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
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6
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Vollmuth TA. Caramel color safety – An update. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 111:578-596. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Kim TR, Kim SU, Shin Y, Kim JY, Lee SM, Kim JH. Determination of 4-Methylimidazole and 2-Acetyl-4()- tetrahydroxybutylimidazole in Caramel Color and Processed Foods by LC-MS/MS. Prev Nutr Food Sci 2014; 18:263-8. [PMID: 24551828 PMCID: PMC3925216 DOI: 10.3746/pnf.2013.18.4.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the quick HPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous separation of 2-acetyl-4(5)-tetrahydrox-ybuthylimidazole (THI) and 4-(5)-methylimidazole (4-MI) in alkaline medium was used for caramel color and processed foods in Korea. After a simple sample pretreatment, 51 4-MI-labeled samples were positive for 4-MI and 2 also contained THI. The concentration of 4-MI was 260.5 ~ 24,499.3 μg/kg in caramel color, less than LOD ~ 1,712.5 μg/kg in sauce, 1,242.3, 5,972.2 μg/kg in balsamic vinegar, 2,118.3 ~ 5,802.4 μg/kg in complex seasoning, 82.7 ~ 5,110.6 μg/kg in curry, and 29.9 ~ 464.4 μg/kg in soft drinks. The recovery rate of 4-MI was 97.1 ~ 111.0% in sauce and 81.9 ~ 110.0% in powder and that of THI was 83.6 ~ 106.4% in sauce and 61.2 ~ 99.4% in powder. Our results concluded a safe amount of 4-MI and THI compared to the limit of Korea additive code but the processed foods do not have a limit of caramel color and 4-MI in Korea. Therefore, research and monitoring of 4-MI and THI is needed for processed foods in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Rang Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Su Un Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Young Shin
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Ji Young Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Sang Me Lee
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Jung Hun Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
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8
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Hengel M, Shibamoto T. Carcinogenic 4(5)-methylimidazole found in beverages, sauces, and caramel colors: chemical properties, analysis, and biological activities. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:780-789. [PMID: 23294412 DOI: 10.1021/jf304855u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Since the National Toxicology Program (NTP) identified 4(5)-methylimidazole [4(5)-MI] as a cancer causing chemical in 2007 and the State of California added it to the Proposition 65 list of compounds as a carcinogen on January 7, 2011, many researchers and regulatory agencies have become focused on the presence of 4(5)-MI in foods and beverages. 4(5)-MI has been known to form in the Maillard reaction system consisting of a sugar and ammonia-a typical caramel-color preparation method for beverages. 4(5)-MI is identified in various beverages and sauces, which are colored with caramel, as well as in caramel color itself. Analysis of 4(5)-MI is extremely difficult due to its high water solubility, but the analytical method for 4(5)-MI has progressed from conventional paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to the most advanced high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Various studies indicate that caramel colors and carbonated beverages contain 4(5)-MI in levels ranging from 0 to around 1000 ppm and from 0 to about 500 ppm, respectively. Reports of the toxicity of 4(5)-MI at relatively high levels suggest that it may cause some adverse effects on human consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Hengel
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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9
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Food caramels: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012; 51:1686-96. [PMID: 25190825 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-012-0633-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Caramel, defined as coloring agent and as an antioxidant, is being used in several kinds of food products. It has been classified into 4 classes to satisfy the requirement of several food and beverage systems. The variation in its consistency owing to its basic content of milk solids, sugars, and fat has been studied. Several methods have been found to estimate the amount of color provided by caramel in food products. Various formulations have been cited for the production of caramel by eradicating the frequent areas of problems during its processing. Caramel has been used as a synthetic colorant replacer in the baking and beverage industries. Researchers have aimed to ascertain the contribution to the antioxidant activity of some caramel-containing soft drinks. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has established an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of Class I caramel color as "not specified"; that of Class II as 0-160 mg/kg body weight; that of Class III as 0-200 mg/kg body weight; and that of Class IV as 0-200 mg/kg body weight. This paper is an overview of the classification, physicochemical nature, formulations, coloring properties, antioxidant properties, and toxicity of caramel in different food systems.
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11
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Scientific Opinion on the re‐evaluation of caramel colours (E 150 a,b,c,d) as food additives. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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12
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Kobayashi K, Sakuratani Y, Abe T, Nishikawa S, Yamada J, Hirose A, Kamata E, Hayashi M. Relation between statistics and treatment-related changes obtained from toxicity studies in rats: if detected a significant difference in low or middle dose for quantitative values, this change is considered as incidental change? J Toxicol Sci 2010; 35:79-85. [PMID: 20118627 DOI: 10.2131/jts.35.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of a toxicity test is to determine the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) of test substance through biological and pharmacological techniques. If the low dose not does show statistically significant and biologically relevant changes in the data evaluated in a study, the usual practice is to consider this dose as the NOEL. To overcome this, 6 types of techniques that seemed to be appropriate are presented in this paper by investigating the results of several domestic and foreign theses on toxicology. The most appropriate techniques appear to be the trend test, comparison between treatment group and historical control by t-test, and confirmation that all individual values lie within the 95% confidence interval (2 SD) of the historical control value, if a significant difference is admitted in the low dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsumi Kobayashi
- Chemical Management Center, National Institute of Technology and Evaluation, Tokyo.
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13
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Hallagan JB, Allen DC, Borzelleca JF. The safety and regulatory status of food, drug and cosmetics colour additives exempt from certification. Food Chem Toxicol 1995; 33:515-28. [PMID: 7797179 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(95)00010-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Colour additives exempt from certification (also known as 'natural colour additives') are commonly used in the United States to colour foods, drugs and cosmetics. The US Food and Drug Administration established regulations governing the use of these colour additives, and the labelling of the products that contain them. The safety of these colour additives has been demonstrated by safety testing programs that have yielded a significant amount of toxicology data, and also by a long and well documented history of safe use in the United States and elsewhere. In this report we review the data supporting the safety of the colour additives that are exempt from certification and approved for use in the USA, and conclude that the safety of these colour additives is well supported by the available data. Relevant aspects of the regulation of these colour additives are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Hallagan
- International Association of Color Manufacturers, Washington, DC 20006, USA
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