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Zhang S, Song W, Hua Z, Du J, Lucena RB, Wang X, Zhang C, Yang X. Overview of T-2 Toxin Enterotoxicity: From Toxic Mechanisms and Detoxification to Future Perspectives. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:3314-3324. [PMID: 38331717 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c09416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Fusarium species produce a secondary metabolite known as T-2 toxin, which is the primary and most harmful toxin found in type A trichothecenes. T-2 toxin is widely found in food and grain-based animal feed and endangers the health of both humans and animals. T-2 toxin exposure in humans and animals occurs primarily through food administration; therefore, the first organ that T-2 toxin targets is the gut. In this overview, the research progress, toxicity mechanism, and detoxification of the toxin T-2 were reviewed, and future research directions were proposed. T-2 toxin damages the intestinal mucosa and destroys intestinal structure and intestinal barrier function; furthermore, T-2 toxin disrupts the intestinal microbiota, causes intestinal flora disorders, affects normal intestinal metabolic function, and kills intestinal epidermal cells by inducing oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and apoptosis. The primary harmful mechanism of T-2 toxin in the intestine is oxidative stress. Currently, selenium and plant extracts are mainly used to exert antioxidant effects to alleviate the enterotoxicity of T-2 toxin. In future studies, the use of genomic techniques to find upstream signaling molecules associated with T-2 enterotoxin toxicity will provide new ideas for the prevention of this toxicity. The purpose of this paper is to review the progress of research on the intestinal toxicity of T-2 toxin and propose new research directions for the prevention and treatment of T-2 toxin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou 450000, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Wenxi Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Zeao Hua
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Juanjuan Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Ricardo Barbosa Lucena
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Federal University of Paraiba, Areia 58397-000, Paraiba Brazil
| | - Xuebing Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Cong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou 450000, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Xu Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine Henan Agricultural University No.15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450046, Henan, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou 450000, Henan, P. R. China
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Vörösházi J, Mackei M, Sebők C, Tráj P, Márton RA, Horváth DG, Huber K, Neogrády Z, Mátis G. Investigation of the effects of T-2 toxin in chicken-derived three-dimensional hepatic cell cultures. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1195. [PMID: 38216675 PMCID: PMC10786837 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51689-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite being one of the most common contaminants of poultry feed, the molecular effects of T-2 toxin on the liver of the exposed animals are still not fully elucidated. To gain more accurate understanding, the effects of T-2 toxin were investigated in the present study in chicken-derived three-dimensional (3D) primary hepatic cell cultures. 3D spheroids were treated with three concentrations (100, 500, 1000 nM) of T-2 toxin for 24 h. Cellular metabolic activity declined in all treated groups as reflected by the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, while extracellular lactate dehydrogenase activity was increased after 500 nM T-2 toxin exposure. The levels of oxidative stress markers malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl were reduced by the toxin, suggesting effective antioxidant compensatory mechanisms of the liver. Concerning the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 concentration was decreased, while IL-8 concentration was increased by 100 nM T-2 toxin exposure, indicating the multifaceted immunomodulatory action of the toxin. Further, the metabolic profile of hepatic spheroids was also modulated, confirming the altered lipid and amino acid metabolism of toxin-exposed liver cells. Based on these results, T-2 toxin affected cell viability, hepatocellular metabolism and inflammatory response, likely carried out its toxic effects by affecting the oxidative homeostasis of the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlia Vörösházi
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary.
| | - Máté Mackei
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
- National Laboratory of Infectious Animal Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Public Health and Food Chain Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Csilla Sebők
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Patrik Tráj
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Rege Anna Márton
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
- National Laboratory of Infectious Animal Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Public Health and Food Chain Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Dávid Géza Horváth
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Korinna Huber
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Zsuzsanna Neogrády
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
| | - Gábor Mátis
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
- National Laboratory of Infectious Animal Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Public Health and Food Chain Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, 1078, Hungary
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Mayer BP, Dreyer ML, Prieto Conaway MC, Valdez CA, Corzett T, Leif R, Williams AM. Toward Machine Learning-Driven Mass Spectrometric Identification of Trichothecenes in the Absence of Standard Reference Materials. Anal Chem 2023; 95:13064-13072. [PMID: 37607517 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c01474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
While a significant body of work exists on the detection of commonly known trichothecene toxins, biological, environmental, and other transformational processes can generate many under-characterized and unknown modified trichothecenes. Lacking both analytical reference standards and associated mass spectral databases, identification of these modified compounds reflects both a challenge and a critical gap from forensic and public health perspectives. We report here the application of machine learning (ML) techniques toward identification of discriminative fragment ions from mass spectrometric data that can be exploited to detect evidence of type A and B trichothecenes. The goal of this work is to establish a new method for the identification of unknown, though structurally similar trichothecenes, by leveraging objective ML techniques. Discriminative fragments derived from a series of gradient-boosted machine learners are then used to develop ML-driven precursor ion scan (PIS) methods on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QQQ) for screening of "unknown unknown" trichothecenes. Specifically, we apply the PIS method to a laboratory-synthesized trichothecene, a first step in demonstrating the power of alternative, machine learning-driven mass spectrometric methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Mayer
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Mark L Dreyer
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Maria C Prieto Conaway
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Carlos A Valdez
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Todd Corzett
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Roald Leif
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Audrey M Williams
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue L-090, Livermore, California 94550, United States
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Anteyi WO, Klaiber I, Rasche F. Diacetoxyscirpenol, a Fusarium exometabolite, prevents efficiently the incidence of the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 22:84. [PMID: 35209839 PMCID: PMC8867772 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-022-03471-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Certain Fusarium exometabolites have been reported to inhibit seed germination of the cereal-parasitizing witchweed, Striga hermonthica, in vitro. However, it is unknown if these exometabolites will consistently prevent S. hermonthica incidence in planta. The study screened a selection of known, highly phytotoxic Fusarium exometabolites, in identifying the most potent/efficient candidate (i.e., having the greatest effect at minimal concentration) to completely hinder S. hermonthica seed germination in vitro and incidence in planta, without affecting the host crop development and yield. RESULTS In vitro germination assays of the tested Fusarium exometabolites (i.e., 1,4-naphthoquinone, equisetin, fusaric acid, hymeglusin, neosolaniol (Neo), T-2 toxin (T-2) and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)) as pre-Striga seed conditioning treatments at 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 µM, revealed that only DAS, out of all tested exometabolites, completely inhibited S. hermonthica seed germination at each concentration. It was followed by T-2 and Neo, as from 10 to 20 µM respectively. The remaining exometabolites reduced S. hermonthica seed germination as from 20 µM (P < 0. 0001). In planta assessment (in a S. hermonthica-sorghum parasitic system) of the exometabolites at 20 µM showed that, although, none of the tested exometabolites affected sorghum aboveground dry biomass (P > 0.05), only DAS completely prevented S. hermonthica incidence. Following a 14-d incubation of DAS in the planting soil substrate, bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and fungal 18S rRNA gene copy numbers of the soil microbial community were enhanced; which coincided with complete degradation of DAS in the substrate. Metabolic footprinting revealed that the S. hermonthica mycoherbicidal agent, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. strigae (isolates Foxy-2, FK3), did not produce DAS; a discovery that corresponded with underexpression of key genes (Tri5, Tri4) necessary for Fusarium trichothecene biosynthesis (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Among the tested Fusarium exometabolites, DAS exhibited the most promising herbicidal potential against S. hermonthica. Thus, it could serve as a new biocontrol agent for efficient S. hermonthica management. Further examination of DAS specific mode of action against the target weed S. hermonthica at low concentrations (≤ 20 µM), as opposed to non-target soil organisms, is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Williams Oyifioda Anteyi
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences in the Tropics (Hans-Ruthenberg-Institute), University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Iris Klaiber
- Core Facility Hohenheim, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Frank Rasche
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences in the Tropics (Hans-Ruthenberg-Institute), University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany.
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Hou S, Ma J, Cheng Y, Wang H, Sun J, Yan Y. The toxicity mechanisms of DON to humans and animals and potential biological treatment strategies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:790-812. [PMID: 34520302 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1954598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol, also known as vomitotoxin, is produced by Fusarium, belonging to the group B of the trichothecene family. DON is widely polluted, mainly polluting cereal crops such as wheat, barley, oats, corn and related cereal products, which are closely related to lives of people and animals. At present, there have been articles summarizing DON induced toxicity, biological detoxification and the protective effect of natural products, but there is no systematic summary of this information. In addition to ribosome and endoplasmic reticulum, recent investigations support that mitochondrion is also organelles that DON can damage. DON can't directly act on mitochondria, but can indirectly cause mitochondrial damage and changes through other means. DON can indirectly inhibit mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial electron transport chain activity, ATP production, and mitochondrial transcription and translation. This review will provide the latest progress on mitochondria as the research object, and systematically summarizes all the toxic mechanisms of DON. Here, we discuss DON induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and various mitochondrial toxicity. For the toxicity of DON, many methods have been derived to prevent or reduce the toxicity. Biological detoxification and the antioxidant effect of natural products are potentially effective treatments for DON toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silu Hou
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingjiao Ma
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuqiang Cheng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hengan Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianhe Sun
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaxian Yan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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6
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Feizollahi E, Roopesh MS. Mechanisms of deoxynivalenol (DON) degradation during different treatments: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5903-5924. [PMID: 33729830 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1895056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main trichothecenes, that causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable financial loss to the food industry each year. Numerous treatments have been reported in the literature on the degradation of DON in food products. These treatments include thermal, chemical, biological/enzymatic, irradiation, light, ultrasound, ozone, and atmospheric cold plasma treatments. Each of these methods has different degradation efficacy and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism, which leads to various degradation byproducts with different toxicity. This manuscript focuses to review the degradation of DON by the aforementioned treatments, the chemical structure and toxicity of the byproducts, and the degradation pathway of DON. Based on the type of treatment, DON can be degraded to norDONs A-F, DON lactones, and ozonolysis products or transformed into de-epoxy deoxynivalenol, DON-3-glucoside, 3-acetyl-DON, 7-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, 3-keto-DON, or 3-epi-DON. DON is a major problem for the grain industry and the studies focusing on DON degradation mechanisms could be helpful to select the best method and overcome the DON contamination in grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Feizollahi
- Department of Agricultural, Food & Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - M S Roopesh
- Department of Agricultural, Food & Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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Toxin Degradation by Rumen Microorganisms: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100664. [PMID: 33092236 PMCID: PMC7590051 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal feeds may contain exogenous compounds that can induce toxicity when ruminants ingest them. These toxins are secondary metabolites originating from various sources including plants, bacteria, algae and fungi. Animal feed toxins are responsible for various animal poisonings which negatively impact the livestock industry. Poisoning is more frequently reported in newly exposed, naïve ruminants while ‘experienced’ ruminants are observed to better tolerate toxin-contaminated feed. Ruminants can possess detoxification ability through rumen microorganisms with the rumen microbiome able to adapt to utilise toxic secondary metabolites. The ability of rumen microorganisms to metabolise these toxins has been used as a basis for the development of preventative probiotics to confer resistance against the poisoning to naïve ruminants. In this review, detoxification of various toxins, which include plant toxins, cyanobacteria toxins and plant-associated fungal mycotoxins, by rumen microorganisms is discussed. The review will include clinical studies of the animal poisoning caused by these toxins, the toxin mechanism of action, toxin degradation by rumen microorganisms, reported and hypothesised detoxification mechanisms and identified toxin metabolites with their toxicity compared to their parent toxin. This review highlights the commercial potential of rumen inoculum derived probiotics as viable means of improving ruminant health and production.
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Xu R, Karrow NA, Shandilya UK, Sun LH, Kitazawa H. In-Vitro Cell Culture for Efficient Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure, Toxicity and Risk Mitigation. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E146. [PMID: 32120954 PMCID: PMC7150844 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that commonly contaminate crops and food by-products and thus, animal feed. Ingestion of mycotoxins can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans, and at subclinical concentrations may affect animal production and adulterate feed and animal by-products. Mycotoxicity mechanisms of action (MOA) are largely unknown, and co-contamination, which is often the case, raises the likelihood of mycotoxin interactions. Mitigation strategies for reducing the risk of mycotoxicity are diverse and may not necessarily provide protection against all mycotoxins. These factors, as well as the species-specific risk of toxicity, collectively make an assessment of exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation very challenging and costly; thus, in-vitro cell culture models provide a useful tool for their initial assessment. Since ingestion is the most common route of mycotoxin exposure, the intestinal epithelial barrier comprised of epithelial cells (IECs) and immune cells such as macrophages, represents ground zero where mycotoxins are absorbed, biotransformed, and elicit toxicity. This article aims to review different in-vitro IEC or co-culture models that can be used for assessing mycotoxin exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation, and their suitability and limitations for the safety assessment of animal foods and food by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Xu
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (R.X.); (U.K.S.)
| | - Niel A. Karrow
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (R.X.); (U.K.S.)
| | - Umesh K. Shandilya
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (R.X.); (U.K.S.)
| | - Lv-hui Sun
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China;
| | - Haruki Kitazawa
- Food and Feed Immunology Group, Laboratory of Animal Products Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan;
- Livestock Immunology Unit, International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology (CFAI), Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan
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Guo H, Ji J, Wang J, Sun X. Deoxynivalenol: Masked forms, fate during food processing, and potential biological remedies. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:895-926. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and NutritionJiangnan University Wuxi China
| | - Jian Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and NutritionJiangnan University Wuxi China
| | - Jia‐sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental ToxicologyUniversity of Georgia Athens Georgia
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and NutritionJiangnan University Wuxi China
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10
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In Vitro Rumen Simulations Show a Reduced Disappearance of Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol and Enniatin B at Conditions of Rumen Acidosis and Lower Microbial Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020101. [PMID: 32033279 PMCID: PMC7076776 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ruminants are generally considered to be less susceptible to the effects of mycotoxins than monogastric animals as the rumen microbiota are capable of detoxifying some of these toxins. Despite this potential degradation, mycotoxin-associated subclinical health problems are seen in dairy cows. In this research, the disappearance of several mycotoxins was determined in an in vitro rumen model and the effect of realistic concentrations of those mycotoxins on fermentation was assessed by volatile fatty acid production. In addition, two hypotheses were tested: (1) a lower rumen pH leads to a decreased degradation of mycotoxins and (2) rumen fluid of lactating cows degrade mycotoxins better than rumen fluid of non-lactating cows. Maize silage was spiked with a mixture of deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), enniatin B (ENN B), mycophenolic acid (MPA), roquefortine C (ROQ-C) and zearalenone (ZEN). Fresh rumen fluid of two lactating cows (L) and two non-lactating cows (N) was added to a buffer of normal pH (6.8) and low pH (5.8), leading to four combinations (L6.8, L5.8, N6.8, N5.8), which were added to the spiked maize substrate. In this study, mycotoxins had no effect on volatile fatty acid production. However, not all mycotoxins fully disappeared during incubation. ENN B and ROQ-C disappeared only partially, whereas MPA showed almost no disappearance. The disappearance of DON, NIV, and ENN B was hampered when pH was low, especially when the inoculum of non-lactating cows was used. For ZEN, a limited transformation of ZEN to α-ZEL and β-ZEL was observed, but only at pH 6.8. In conclusion, based on the type of mycotoxin and the ruminal conditions, mycotoxins can stay intact in the rumen.
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11
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Daud N, Currie V, Duncan G, Busman M, Gratz SW. Intestinal hydrolysis and microbial biotransformation of diacetoxyscirpenol-α-glucoside, HT-2-β-glucoside and N-(1-deoxy-d-fructos-1-yl) fumonisin B1 by human gut microbiota in vitro. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2019; 71:540-548. [DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2019.1698015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noshin Daud
- The Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Valerie Currie
- The Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Gary Duncan
- The Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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12
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Ogunade IM, Martinez-Tuppia C, Queiroz OCM, Jiang Y, Drouin P, Wu F, Vyas D, Adesogan AT. Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:4034-4059. [PMID: 29685276 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Ogunade
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - C Martinez-Tuppia
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - O C M Queiroz
- Chr Hansen, Animal Health and Nutrition, Chr. Hansen, Buenos Aires 1107, Argentina
| | - Y Jiang
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - P Drouin
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - F Wu
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - D Vyas
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - A T Adesogan
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608.
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Yang S, Zhang H, De Boevre M, Zhang J, Li Y, Zhang S, De Saeger S, Zhou J, Li Y, Sun F. Toxicokinetics of HT-2 Toxin in Rats and Its Metabolic Profile in Livestock and Human Liver Microsomes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:8160-8168. [PMID: 29996643 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The lack of information on HT-2 toxin leads to inaccurate hazard evaluations. In the present study, toxicokinetic studies of HT-2 toxin were investigated following intravenous (iv) and oral administration to rats at dosages of 1.0 mg per kilogram of body weight. After oral administration, HT-2 toxin was not detected in plasma, whereas its hydroxylated metabolite, 3'-OH HT-2 was identified. Following iv administration, HT-2 toxin; its 3'-hydroxylated product; and its glucuronide derivative, 3-GlcA HT-2, were observed in plasma, and the glucuronide conjugate was the predominant metabolite. To explore the missing HT-2 toxin in plasma, metabolic studies of HT-2 toxin in liver microsomes were conducted. Consequently, eight phase I and three phase II metabolites were identified. Hydroxylation, hydrolysis, and glucuronidation were the main metabolic pathways, among which hydroxylation was the predominant one, mediated by 3A4, a cytochrome P450 enzyme. Additionally, significant interspecies metabolic differences were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Centre, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Apicultural Research, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100093 , People's Republic of China
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , Ghent 9000 , Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine , China Agricultural University , Beijing 100193 , People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyan Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , Ghent 9000 , Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine , China Agricultural University , Beijing 100193 , People's Republic of China
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , Ghent 9000 , Belgium
| | - Jinzhen Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , Ghent 9000 , Belgium
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science , Yantai University , Yantai , Shandong 264005 , People's Republic of China
| | - Suxia Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine , China Agricultural University , Beijing 100193 , People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , Ghent 9000 , Belgium
| | - Jinhui Zhou
- Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Centre, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Apicultural Research, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100093 , People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Li
- Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Centre, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Apicultural Research, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100093 , People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Sun
- Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Centre, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Apicultural Research, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100093 , People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine , China Agricultural University , Beijing 100193 , People's Republic of China
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14
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Schmidt HS, Schulz M, Focke C, Becker S, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Glucosylation of T-2 and HT-2 toxins using biotransformation and chemical synthesis: Preparation, stereochemistry, and stability. Mycotoxin Res 2018; 34:159-172. [PMID: 29511991 PMCID: PMC6061246 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0310-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plant-derived phase II metabolites of T-2 toxin (T2) and HT-2 toxin (HT2) were first described in 2011 and further characterized in the following years. Since then, some efforts have been made to understand their biosynthesis, occurrence, toxicity, toxicokinetics, and finally relevance for consumers. Thus, the probably most important question is whether and how these metabolites contribute to toxicity upon hydrolysis either during food processing or the gastrointestinal passage. To answer this question, firstly, knowledge on the correct stereochemistry of T2 and HT2 glucosides is important as this affects hydrolysis and chemical behavior. So far, contradictory results have been published concerning the number and anomericity of occurring glucosides. For this reason, we set up different strategies for the synthesis of mg-amounts of T2, HT2, and T2 triol glucosides in both α and ß configuration. All synthesized glucosides were fully characterized by NMR spectroscopy as well as mass spectrometry and used as references for the analysis of naturally contaminated food samples to validate or invalidate their natural occurrence. Generally, 3-O-glucosylation was observed with two anomers of HT2 glucoside being present in contaminated oats. In contrast, only one anomer of T2 glucoside was found. The second aspect of this study addresses the stability of the glucosides during thermal food processing. Oat flour was artificially contaminated with T2 and HT2 glucosides individually and extruded at varying initial moisture content and temperature. All four glucosides appear to be more stable during food extrusion than the parent compounds with the glucosidic bond not being hydrolyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Sören Schmidt
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Mareike Schulz
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Focke
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Stefanie Becker
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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15
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Vidal A, Mengelers M, Yang S, De Saeger S, De Boevre M. Mycotoxin Biomarkers of Exposure: A Comprehensive Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:1127-1155. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Vidal
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
| | - Marcel Mengelers
- Dept. of Food Safety; National Inst. of Public Health and the Environment; Bilthoven The Netherlands
| | - Shupeng Yang
- Inst. of Apicultural Research, Chinese Acad. of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products; Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center; Ministry of Agriculture Beijing 100093 People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
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16
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Novak B, Vatzia E, Springler A, Pierron A, Gerner W, Reisinger N, Hessenberger S, Schatzmayr G, Mayer E. Bovine Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Are More Sensitive to Deoxynivalenol Than Those Derived from Poultry and Swine. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10040152. [PMID: 29641442 PMCID: PMC5923318 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins, contaminating cereals and cereal-derived products. Its derivative deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) is produced by certain bacteria, which either occur naturally or are supplemented in feed additive. DON-induced impairments in protein synthesis are particularly problematic for highly proliferating immune cells. This study provides the first comparison of the effects of DON and DOM-1 on the concanavalin A-induced proliferation of porcine, chicken, and bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Therefore, isolated PBMCs were treated with DON (0.01–3.37 µM) and DOM-1 (1.39–357 µM) separately, and proliferation was measured using a bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) assay. Although pigs are considered highly sensitive to DON, the present study revealed a substantially higher sensitivity of bovine (IC50 = 0.314 µM) PBMCs compared to chicken (IC50 = 0.691 µM) and porcine (IC50 = 0.693 µM) PBMCs. Analyses on the proliferation of bovine T-cell subsets showed that all major subsets, namely, CD4+, CD8β+, and γδ T cells, were affected to a similar extent. In contrast, DOM-1 did not affect bovine PBMCs, but reduced the proliferation of chicken and porcine PBMCs at the highest tested concentration (357 µM). Results confirm the necessity of feed additives containing DON-to-DOM-1-transforming bacteria and highlights species-specific differences in the DON sensitivity of immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Eleni Vatzia
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | | | - Alix Pierron
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Wilhelm Gerner
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
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17
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, Rietjens I, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Eskola M, Gergelova P, Ramos Bordajandi L, Benkova B, Dörr B, Gkrillas A, Gustavsson N, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04718. [PMID: 32625635 PMCID: PMC7010102 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.
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18
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Adhikari M, Negi B, Kaushik N, Adhikari A, Al-Khedhairy AA, Kaushik NK, Choi EH. T-2 mycotoxin: toxicological effects and decontamination strategies. Oncotarget 2017; 8:33933-33952. [PMID: 28430618 PMCID: PMC5464924 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.15422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are highly diverse secondary metabolites produced in nature by a wide variety of fungus which causes food contamination, resulting in mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. In particular, trichothecenes mycotoxin produced by genus fusarium is agriculturally more important worldwide due to the potential health hazards they pose. It is mainly metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites with the hydroxy trichothecenes-2 toxin being the major metabolite. Trichothecene is hazardously intoxicating due to their additional potential to be topically absorbed, and their metabolites affect the gastrointestinal tract, skin, kidney, liver, and immune and hematopoietic progenitor cellular systems. Sensitivity to this type of toxin varying from dairy cattle to pigs, with the most sensitive endpoints being neural, reproductive, immunological and hematological effects. The mechanism of action mainly consists of the inhibition of protein synthesis and oxidative damage to cells followed by the disruption of nucleic acid synthesis and ensuing apoptosis. In this review, the possible hazards, historical significance, toxicokinetics, and the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects along with regulatory guidelines and recommendations pertaining to the trichothecene mycotoxin are discussed. Furthermore, various techniques utilized for toxin determination, pathophysiology, prophylaxis and treatment using herbal antioxidant compounds and regulatory guidelines and recommendations are reviewed. The prospects of the trichothecene as potential hazardous agents, decontamination strategies and future perspectives along with plausible therapeutic uses are comprehensively described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Adhikari
- Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bhawana Negi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Neha Kaushik
- Department of Life Science, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Anupriya Adhikari
- Department of Chemistry, Kanya Gurukul Campus, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, India
| | | | - Nagendra Kumar Kaushik
- Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Ha Choi
- Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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19
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Zhu Y, Hassan YI, Lepp D, Shao S, Zhou T. Strategies and Methodologies for Developing Microbial Detoxification Systems to Mitigate Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E130. [PMID: 28387743 PMCID: PMC5408204 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9040130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins, the secondary metabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi, have been found in almost all agricultural commodities worldwide, causing enormous economic losses in livestock production and severe human health problems. Compared to traditional physical adsorption and chemical reactions, interest in biological detoxification methods that are environmentally sound, safe and highly efficient has seen a significant increase in recent years. However, researchers in this field have been facing tremendous unexpected challenges and are eager to find solutions. This review summarizes and assesses the research strategies and methodologies in each phase of the development of microbiological solutions for mycotoxin mitigation. These include screening of functional microbial consortia from natural samples, isolation and identification of single colonies with biotransformation activity, investigation of the physiological characteristics of isolated strains, identification and assessment of the toxicities of biotransformation products, purification of functional enzymes and the application of mycotoxin decontamination to feed/food production. A full understanding and appropriate application of this tool box should be helpful towards the development of novel microbiological solutions on mycotoxin detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhu
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Yousef I Hassan
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Dion Lepp
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Suqin Shao
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Ting Zhou
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
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20
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Pantaya D, Morgavi DP, Silberberg M, Chaucheyras-Durand F, Martin C, Suryahadi, Wiryawan KG, Boudra H. Bioavailability of aflatoxin B 1 and ochratoxin A, but not fumonisin B 1 or deoxynivalenol, is increased in starch-induced low ruminal pH in nonlactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:9759-9767. [PMID: 27771083 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
High-production dairy and beef systems require diets rich in starch. This practice may induce ruminal acidosis and also increase exposure to mycotoxins because starches in starch-rich diets are the main vehicles of mycotoxin contamination. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of low ruminal pH on the bioavailability of 4 major mycotoxins [i.e., aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisin B1 (FB1)]. Eight nonlactating dairy cows fitted with rumen cannulas were used in a double crossover experiment. The trial was divided into 4 periods with 2 periods per crossover. Cows were divided into 2 groups receiving a low (15% dry matter basis) and high-starch diet (30.8%) with and without live yeast supplementation (1×1010 cfu per cow) in the first and second crossover, respectively. At the end of each period, cows received a single dose of mycotoxin-contaminated feed containing 0.05, 0.2, 0.24, and 0.56mg of AFB1, OTA, DON, and FB1 per kg of feed, respectively. The fecal and urinary excretion of mycotoxins and their metabolites was monitored for up to 48h postdosing. As expected, ruminal pH decreased in cows fed the high-starch diet. The high-starch diet increased the bioavailability of OTA and AFB1. Urinary excretion of OTA 24h after mycotoxin administration increased 3-fold in the high-starch diet, correlated with lower fecal excretion. Similarly, a decrease in fecal excretion of AFB1 was accompanied by an increase in urinary excretion of its major metabolite, aflatoxin M1, 48h after mycotoxin administration. In contrast to AFB1 and OTA, the bioavailability of DON and FB1 remained unchanged. Yeast supplementation had no effect on the excretion balance of these 2 mycotoxins. In conclusion, these results show that high-starch diets increased the bioavailability of OTA and AFB1, most probably through the lowering effect on ruminal pH. This greater bioavailability potentially increases the toxic effects of these mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Pantaya
- UMRH, INRA, Vetagro Sup, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France; Department of Animal Science, State Polytechnic Jember, Jember, Indonesia, 68121
| | - D P Morgavi
- UMRH, INRA, Vetagro Sup, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - M Silberberg
- UMRH, INRA, Vetagro Sup, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - F Chaucheyras-Durand
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, 31702 Blagnac Cedex, France; Unité de Microbiologie, INRA, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - C Martin
- UMRH, INRA, Vetagro Sup, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Suryahadi
- Faculty of Animal Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia, 16680
| | - K G Wiryawan
- Faculty of Animal Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia, 16680
| | - H Boudra
- UMRH, INRA, Vetagro Sup, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France.
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21
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Payros D, Alassane-Kpembi I, Pierron A, Loiseau N, Pinton P, Oswald IP. Toxicology of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:2931-2957. [PMID: 27663890 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1826-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are the most frequently occurring natural contaminants in human and animal diet. Among them, deoxynivalenol (DON), produced by Fusarium, is one of the most prevalent and thus represents an important health risk. Recent detection methods revealed new mycotoxins and new molecules derivated from the "native" mycotoxins. The main derivates of DON are the acetylated forms produced by the fungi (3- and 15-acetyl-DON), the biologically "modified" forms produced by the plant (deoxynivalenol-3-β-D-glucopyranoside), or after bacteria transformation (de-epoxy DON, 3-epi-DON and 3-keto-DON) as well as the chemically "modified" forms (norDON A-C and DON-sulfonates). High proportions of acetylated and modified forms of DON co-occur with DON, increasing the exposure and the health risk. DON and its acetylated and modified forms are rapidly absorbed following ingestion. At the molecular level, DON binds to the ribosome, induces a ribotoxic stress leading to the activation of MAP kinases, cellular cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. The toxic effects of DON include emesis and anorexia, alteration of intestinal and immune functions, reduced absorption of the nutrients as well as increased susceptibility to infection and chronic diseases. In contrast to DON, very little information exists concerning the acetylated and modified forms; some can be converted back to DON, their ability to bind to the ribosome and to induce cellular effects varies according to the toxin. Except for the acetylated forms, their toxicity and impact on human and animal health are poorly documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Payros
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Imourana Alassane-Kpembi
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Alix Pierron
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France.,BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Nicolas Loiseau
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Philippe Pinton
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- Toxalim (Research center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France.
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22
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Ji C, Fan Y, Zhao L. Review on biological degradation of mycotoxins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 2:127-133. [PMID: 29767078 PMCID: PMC5941024 DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 07/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The worldwide contamination of feeds and foods with mycotoxins is a significant problem. Mycotoxins pose huge health threat to animals and humans. As well, mycotoxins bring enormous economic losses in food industry and animal husbandry annually. Thus, strategies to eliminate or inactivate mycotoxins in food and feed are urgently needed. Traditional physical and chemical methods have some limitations such as limited efficacy, safety issues, losses in the nutritional value and the palatability of feeds, as well as the expensive equipment required to implement these techniques. Biological degradation of mycotoxins has shown promise because it works under mild, environmentally friendly conditions. Aflatoxin (AF), zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are considered the most economically important mycotoxins in terms of their high prevalence and significant negative effects on animal performance. Therefore, this review will comprehensively describe the biological degradation of AF, ZEA and DON by microorganisms (including fungi and bacteria) and specific enzymes isolated from microbial systems that can convert mycotoxins with varied efficiency to non- or less toxic products. Finally, some strategies and advices on existing difficulties of biodegradation research are also briefly proposed in this paper.
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23
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Vanhoutte I, Audenaert K, De Gelder L. Biodegradation of Mycotoxins: Tales from Known and Unexplored Worlds. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:561. [PMID: 27199907 PMCID: PMC4843849 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to mycotoxins, secondary metabolites produced by fungi, may infer serious risks for animal and human health and lead to economic losses. Several approaches to reduce these mycotoxins have been investigated such as chemical removal, physical binding, or microbial degradation. This review focuses on the microbial degradation or transformation of mycotoxins, with specific attention to the actual detoxification mechanisms of the mother compound. Furthermore, based on the similarities in chemical structure between groups of mycotoxins and environmentally recalcitrant compounds, known biodegradation pathways and degrading organisms which hold promise for the degradation of mycotoxins are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Leen De Gelder
- Department of Applied BioSciences, Faculty Bioscience Engineering, Ghent UniversityGhent, Belgium
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24
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Yang S, De Boevre M, Zhang H, De Ruyck K, Sun F, Wang Z, Cao X, Shen J, De Saeger S, Zhang S. Unraveling the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of diacetoxyscirpenol in various animal species and human using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight hybrid mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:8571-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9016-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Kinoshita A, Keese C, Beineke A, Meyer U, Starke A, Sauerwein H, Dänicke S, Rehage J. Effects of Fusarium mycotoxins in rations with different concentrate proportions on serum haptoglobin and hepatocellular integrity in lactating dairy cows. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2015; 99:887-92. [PMID: 25845993 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.12293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
It was hypothesized that long-term intake of a diet contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and differing in the proportion of concentrate might affect hepatocellular integrity and function as well as biomarkers of systemic inflammation in lactating dairy cows. In Period 1 (11 weeks), 26 lactating German Holstein cows (13 primiparous and 13 pluriparous, 31 days in milk, 522 kg body weight, on average) were divided into two groups and fed diets (50% concentrate) with (MYC, n = 12; on average 5.3 mg DON/kg DM) or without (CON, n = 14) DON contaminations. In Period 2 (16 weeks), each group was further divided into two groups to test whether elevated concentrate proportion as additional burden might enhance the toxicity of DON. The cows in MYC60 (n = 6; 4.6 mg DON/kg DM) and CON60 (n = 7) received the diet with 60% concentrate, while cows in MYC30 (n = 6; 4.4 mg DON/kg DM) and CON30 (n = 7) received the diet with 30% concentrate. Blood samples were taken in biweekly intervals for activities of aspartate amino transferase (AST), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) and gamma-glutamyl transferase as well as for concentration of total bilirubin and haptoglobin. Biopsies from liver were collected in week 27 for morphological analyses. No DON effect was found for the variables assessed in blood. The diet with 60% concentrate led to higher activities of AST and GLDH in Period 2. No morphological change was found by both light and electron microscopic analyses of liver samples. Results indicated that long-term intake of DON-contaminated diet over 27 weeks led to neither relevant damages of hepatocytes nor systemic inflammatory responses in lactating dairy cows, even if the dietary concentrate proportion was increased to 60%.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kinoshita
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - C Keese
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - A Beineke
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - U Meyer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - A Starke
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - H Sauerwein
- Physiology & Hygiene Unit, Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - S Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - J Rehage
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Ghareeb K, Awad WA, Böhm J, Zebeli Q. Impacts of the feed contaminant deoxynivalenol on the intestine of monogastric animals: poultry and swine. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:327-37. [PMID: 25352520 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent cereal contaminants with major public health concerns owing to its high toxigenic potentials. Once ingested, DON first and foremost targets epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, whose proper functioning, as the first line of defence, is of paramount importance for the host's health. Emerging evidences, summarized in this article, suggest that DON produces its toxicity primarily via activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signalling pathway and alteration in the expression of genes responsible for key physiological and immunological functions of the intestinal tissue of chickens and pigs. The activation of MAPKs signalling cascade results in disruption of the gut barrier function and an increase in the permeability by reducing expression of the tight junction proteins. Exposure to DON also down-regulates the expression of multiple transporter systems in the enterocytes with subsequent impairment of the absorption of key nutrients. Other major intestinal cytotoxic effects of DON described herein are modulation of mucosal immune responses, leading to immunosupression or stimulation of local immune cells and cytokine release, and also facilitation of the persistence of intestinal pathogens in the gut. Both of the last events potentiate enteric infections and local inflammation in pigs and poultry, rendering enterocytes and the host more vulnerable to luminal toxic compounds. This review highlights the cytotoxic risks associated with the intake of even low levels of DON and also identifies gaps of knowledge that need to be addressed by future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Ghareeb
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210, Vienna, Austria; Department of Animal Hygiene, Behaviour and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, 83523, Qena, Egypt
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Tran ST, Smith TK. Conjugation of deoxynivalenol by Alternaria alternata (54028 NRRL), Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis (54029 NRRL) and Aspergillus oryzae (5509 NRRL). Mycotoxin Res 2013; 30:47-53. [PMID: 24263850 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-013-0184-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin) is a trichothecene mycotoxin which can be considered to be an indicator of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination in grain, feed and food. Recent studies have described the presence of glucose conjugated DON, which is a product of plant metabolism, but there is a lack of information available on DON conjugation by fungi. The aim of the current study was, therefore, to investigate the ability of fungi to metabolize DON into hydrolysable conjugated DON. Alternaria alternata (54028 NRRL) and Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis (54029 NRRL) were found to be capable of metabolizing DON into hydrolysable conjugated DON. This ranged from 13-23 % conjugation of DON in potato dextrose agar media and from 11-36 % in corn-based media. There was, however, considerable variation between fungal strains in the ability to conjugate DON as only a slight increase in hydrolysable conjugated DON (1-6 %) was observed when incubating with A. oryzae (5509 NRRL). A. oryzae (5509 NRRL) was also shown to degrade DON (up to 92 %) over 21 days of incubation on corn-based media. The current study shows that conjugation of DON can be achieved through fungal metabolism in addition to being a product of plant metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Tran
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
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Yang S, Li Y, Cao X, Hu D, Wang Z, Wang Y, Shen J, Zhang S. Metabolic pathways of T-2 toxin in in vivo and in vitro systems of Wistar rats. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:9734-9743. [PMID: 23971727 DOI: 10.1021/jf4012054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, metabolites of T-2 toxin in in vivo and in vitro systems of Wistar rats were identified and elucidated by ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS). Expected and unexpected metabolites were detected by Metabolynx(XS) software, which could automatically compare MS(E) data from the sample and control. A total of 19 metabolites of T-2 toxin were identified in this research, 9 of them being novel, which were 15-deacetyl-T-2, 3'-OH-15-deacetyl-T-2, 3',7-dihydroxy-T-2, isomer of 3',7-dihydroxy-T-2, 7-OH-HT-2, isomer of 7-OH-HT-2, de-epoxy-3',7-dihydroxy-HT-2, 9-OH-T-2, and 3',9-dihydroxy-T-2. The results showed that the main metabolic pathways of T-2 toxin were hydrolysis, hydroxylation, and de-epoxidation. In addition, the results also revealed one novel metabolic pathway of T-2 toxin, hydroxylation at C-9 position, which was demonstrated by the metabolites 9-OH-T-2 and 3',9-dihydroxy-T-2. In addition, hydroxylation at C-9 of T-2 toxin was also generated in in vitro of liver systems. Interestingly, several metabolites of hydroxylation at C-7 of T-2 toxin were also detected in in vivo male Wistar rats, but they were not found in in vivo female rats and in in vitro systems of Wistar rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
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Dänicke S, Brezina U. Kinetics and metabolism of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol in farm animals: Consequences for diagnosis of exposure and intoxication and carry over. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 60:58-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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McCormick SP. Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins. J Chem Ecol 2013; 39:907-18. [PMID: 23846184 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-013-0321-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal natural products that are toxic to vertebrate animals including humans. Microbes have been identified that enzymatically convert aflatoxin, zearalenone, ochratoxin, patulin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin to less toxic products. Mycotoxin-degrading fungi and bacteria have been isolated from agricultural soil, infested plant material, and animal digestive tracts. Biotransformation reactions include acetylation, glucosylation, ring cleavage, hydrolysis, deamination, and decarboxylation. Microbial mycotoxin degrading enzymes can be used as feed additives or to decontaminate agricultural commodities. Some detoxification genes have been expressed in plants to limit the pre-harvest mycotoxin production and to protect crop plants from the phytotoxic effects of mycotoxins. Toxin-deficient mutants may be useful in assessing the role of mycotoxins in the ecology of the microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan P McCormick
- Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology Research Unit, USDA-ARS-NCAUR, Peoria, IL, 61604, USA.
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Dunière L, Sindou J, Chaucheyras-Durand F, Chevallier I, Thévenot-Sergentet D. Silage processing and strategies to prevent persistence of undesirable microorganisms. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Choi BK, Jeong SH, Cho JH, Shin HS, Son SW, Yeo YK, Kang HG. Effects of oral deoxynivalenol exposure on immune-related parameters in lymphoid organs and serum of mice vaccinated with porcine parvovirus vaccine. Mycotoxin Res 2013; 29:185-92. [PMID: 23436220 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-013-0161-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Mice were exposed to deoxynivalenol (DON) via drinking water at a concentration of 2 mg/L for 36 days. On day 8 of treatment, inactivated porcine parvovirus vaccine (PPV) was injected intraperitoneally. The relative and absolute weight of the spleen was significantly decreased in the DON-treated group (DON). Antibody titers to parvovirus in serum were 47.9 ± 2.4 in the vaccination group (Vac), but 15.2 ± 6.5 in the group treated with DON and vaccine (DON + Vac). The IgA and IgG was not different in the DON, Vac an,d DON + Vac groups. IgM was significantly lower only in the DON + Vac group. However IgE was significantly increased in the Vac and DON + Vac group, but no change was observed between the Vac and DON + Vac groups. The concentrations of IL-2, IL-4, GM-CSF, MCP-1 and Rantes in serum, and IL-1α in mesenteric lymph node and MIP-1β in spleen were significantly increased by DON treatment compared to control. The concentrations of IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-12, IL-13 and Rantes in thymus, of IL-2 in spleen, and of IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-3, IL-5, IL-10, IL-17, G-CSF, GM-CSF and MCP-1 in mesenteric lymph nodes were significantly decreased in mice compared to those in the Vac group, while concentrations of IL-1α, IL-2, IL-9, IL-13,G-CSF, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, MCP-1, MIP-1α and TNF-α were significantly increased in serum compared to the Vac group. In conclusion, the results presented here indicate that exposure to DON at 2.0 mg/L via drinking water can disrupt the immune response in vaccinated mice by modulating cytokines and chemokines involved in their immune response to infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung-Kook Choi
- Toxicology & Residue Chemistry Division, Animal, Plant and Fisheries Quarantine and Inspection Agency, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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Thirty-five Years of Research on Deoxynivalenol, a Trichothecene Mycotoxin: with Special Reference to Its Discovery and Co-occurrence with Nivalenol in Japan. Food Saf (Tokyo) 2013. [DOI: 10.14252/foodsafetyfscj.2013002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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McCormick SP, Price NPJ, Kurtzman CP. Glucosylation and other biotransformations of T-2 toxin by yeasts of the trichomonascus clade. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:8694-702. [PMID: 23042183 PMCID: PMC3502904 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02391-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid toxins produced by Fusarium species. Since these mycotoxins are very stable, there is interest in microbial transformations that can remove toxins from contaminated grain or cereal products. Twenty-three yeast species assigned to the Trichomonascus clade (Saccharomycotina, Ascomycota), including four Trichomonascus species and 19 anamorphic species presently classified in Blastobotrys, were tested for their ability to convert the trichothecene T-2 toxin to less-toxic products. These species gave three types of biotransformations: acetylation to 3-acetyl T-2 toxin, glycosylation to T-2 toxin 3-glucoside, and removal of the isovaleryl group to form neosolaniol. Some species gave more than one type of biotransformation. Three Blastobotrys species converted T-2 toxin into T-2 toxin 3-glucoside, a compound that has been identified as a masked mycotoxin in Fusarium-infected grain. This is the first report of a microbial whole-cell method for producing trichothecene glycosides, and the potential large-scale availability of T-2 toxin 3-glucoside will facilitate toxicity testing and development of methods for detection of this compound in agricultural and other products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan P McCormick
- Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens and Mycology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois, USA.
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Biological detoxification of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its use in genetically engineered crops and feed additives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 91:491-504. [PMID: 21691789 PMCID: PMC3136691 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3401-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2011] [Revised: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the major mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi in grains. Food and feed contaminated with DON pose a health risk to humans and livestock. The risk can be reduced by enzymatic detoxification. Complete mineralization of DON by microbial cultures has rarely been observed and the activities turned out to be unstable. The detoxification of DON by reactions targeting its epoxide group or hydroxyl on carbon 3 is more feasible. Microbial strains that de-epoxidize DON under anaerobic conditions have been isolated from animal digestive system. Feed additives claimed to de-epoxidize trichothecenes enzymatically are on the market but their efficacy has been disputed. A new detoxification pathway leading to 3-oxo-DON and 3-epi-DON was discovered in taxonomically unrelated soil bacteria from three continents; the enzymes involved remain to be identified. Arabidopsis, tobacco, wheat, barley, and rice were engineered to acetylate DON on carbon 3. In wheat expressing DON acetylation activity, the increase in resistance against Fusarium head blight was only moderate. The Tri101 gene from Fusarium sporotrichioides was used; Fusarium graminearum enzyme which possesses higher activity towards DON would presumably be a better choice. Glycosylation of trichothecenes occurs in plants, contributing to the resistance of wheat to F. graminearum infection. Marker-assisted selection based on the trichothecene-3-O-glucosyltransferase gene can be used in breeding for resistance. Fungal acetyltransferases and plant glucosyltransferases targeting carbon 3 of trichothecenes remain promising candidates for engineering resistance against Fusarium head blight. Bacterial enzymes catalyzing oxidation, epimerization, and less likely de-epoxidation of DON may extend this list in future.
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Wang J, Jiang J, Zhang H, Wang J, Cai H, Li C, Li K, Liu J, Guo X, Zou G, Wang D, Deng Y, Dai J. Integrated transcriptional and proteomic analysis with in vitro biochemical assay reveal the important role of CYP3A46 in T-2 toxin hydroxylation in porcine primary hepatocytes. Mol Cell Proteomics 2011; 10:M111.008748. [PMID: 21685020 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m111.008748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both T-2 toxin and its metabolites are highly potent mycotoxins that can cause severe human and animal diseases upon exposure. Understanding the toxic mechanism and biotransformation process of T-2 toxin at a cellular level is essential for the development of counter-measures. We investigated the effect of T-2 toxin in porcine primary hepatocytes using porcine genome array and two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization tandem time of flight mass spectrometry. Integrated transcriptional and proteomic analysis demonstrated that T-2 toxin adversely affected porcine hepatocytes by initiating lipid metabolism disorder, oxidative stress response, and apoptosis. In addition, xenobiotic metabolism genes, including cytochrome P450 3As (CYP3A46 and CYP3A39), carboxylesterase 1Cs (CES1C4 and CES1C5), and epoxide hydrolase (EPHX1), increased in T-2 toxin treatment cells. Using HepG2 cells to over-express the recombinant xenobiotic metabolism genes above and rapid resolution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry to detect metabolites of T-2 toxin, we determined that porcine CYP3A46 mainly catalyzed T-2 to form 3'-hydroxy-T-2, which was further confirmed by purified CYP3A46 protein. However, recombinant porcine CES1C5 and EPHX1 did not enhance hydrolysis and de-epoxidation of T-2 implying that other esterases and epoxide hydrolases may play dominant roles in those reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianshe Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Li Y, Wang Z, Beier RC, Shen J, De Smet D, De Saeger S, Zhang S. T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin: review of toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:3441-3453. [PMID: 21417259 DOI: 10.1021/jf200767q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the toxicity and metabolism of T-2 toxin and analytical methods used for the determination of T-2 toxin. Among the naturally occurring trichothecenes in food and feed, T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by various species of Fusarium. Following ingestion, T-2 toxin causes acute and chronic toxicity and induces apoptosis in the immune system and fetal tissues. T-2 toxin is usually metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites. Consequently, there is a possibility of human consumption of animal products contaminated with T-2 toxin and its metabolites. Several methods for the determination of T-2 toxin based on traditional chromatographic, immunoassay, or mass spectroscopy techniques are described. This review will contribute to a better understanding of T-2 toxin exposure in animals and humans and T-2 toxin metabolism, toxicity, and analytical methods, which may be useful in risk assessment and control of T-2 toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) and related compounds on bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro and in vivo. Mycotoxin Res 2010; 27:49-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-010-0074-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Revised: 10/24/2010] [Accepted: 10/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Nocardioides sp. strain WSN05-2, isolated from a wheat field, degrades deoxynivalenol, producing the novel intermediate 3-epi-deoxynivalenol. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 89:419-27. [PMID: 20857291 PMCID: PMC3291841 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2857-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 08/01/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) causes serious problems worldwide in the production of crops such as wheat and barley because of its toxicity toward humans and livestock. A bacterial culture capable of degrading DON was obtained from soil samples collected in wheat fields using an enrichment culture procedure. The isolated bacterium, designated strain WSN05-2, completely removed 1,000 μg/mL of DON from the culture medium after incubation for 10 days. On the basis of phylogenetic studies, WSN05-2 was classified as a bacterium belonging to the genus Nocardioides. WSN05-2 showed significant growth in culture medium with DON as the sole carbon source. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis indicated the presence of a major initial metabolite of DON in the culture supernatant. The metabolite was identified as 3-epi-deoxynivalenol (3-epi-DON) by mass spectrometry and 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. The amount of DON on wheat grain was reduced by about 90% at 7 days after inoculation with WSN05-2. This is the first report of a Nocardioides sp. strain able to degrade DON and of the yet unknown 3-epi-DON as an intermediate in the degradation of DON by a microorganism.
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Awad WA, Ghareeb K, Bohm J, Zentek J. Decontamination and detoxification strategies for the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in animal feed and the effectiveness of microbial biodegradation. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2010; 27:510-20. [PMID: 20234966 DOI: 10.1080/19440040903571747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Trichothecenes are a group of mycotoxins mainly produced by fungi of the Fusarium genus. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most abundant and important trichothecenes in food and feed, and is a significant contaminants due to its frequent occurrence in toxicologically relevant concentrations worldwide. Since toxin production depends strongly on environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, Fusarium toxin contamination can not be avoided completely. Therefore, exposure to this toxin is a permanent health risk for both humans and farm animals. As cereal crops are commonly contaminated with DON and animal diets consist mainly of cereals, it can be assumed that animals are frequently exposed to DON-contaminated feeds. Many strategies can be undertaken to reduce the toxic effect of DON. In addition to the general necessity for minimizing all risk factors that might influence the contamination of cereals with DON, such as the so-called field toxins before harvest, several post-harvest strategies can be applied to counteract possible deleterious effects of this mycotoxin in farm animals. Another approach for decontamination in feedstuffs is the use of adsorbent materials. Adsorbent materials may bind mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract and reduce absorption and systemic toxicity. It has been shown that some adsorbents are suitable to alleviate the toxic effects of specific mycotoxins, but its efficacy against trichothecenes is practically zero. Therefore, alternative strategies to reduce animal and human health risk are needed. The use of microbial additives is a method which uses microorganisms having the capability to detoxify mycotoxins by metabolism or degradation prior to their resorption in the gastrointestinal tract. DON has been reported to be completely transformed to de-epoxy-DON by ruminal and intestinal microflora. Eubacterium BBSH 797 was capable of DON degradation and counteracted the toxic effects of DON in animals. This review focuses on the efficacy of microbial feed additives in ameliorating the toxic effects of DON. According to the results of experiments to date, it appears that microorganisms are the main living organisms suitable for this mycotoxin biodegradation. However, the use of this approach depends on its effectiveness from both a practical and economic perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wageha A Awad
- Institute of Nutrition, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
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Mézes M, Balogh K, Tóth K. Preventive and therapeutic methods against the toxic effects of mycotoxins - a review. Acta Vet Hung 2010; 58:1-17. [PMID: 20159734 DOI: 10.1556/avet.58.2010.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ingredients used in animal feeds and their contamination with undesirable substances, such as mycotoxins, are fundamentally important both in terms of the quality of animal products and the potential human health impacts associated with the animal-based food production chain. Feed ingredients contaminated with mycotoxins may have a wide range of toxicological effects on animals. Therefore, mycotoxin contamination of feed ingredients constituting complete feed products represents an important potential hazard in farm animal production. This review summarises the potential effects of some preventive methods used during the storage of cereal grains as well as of nutritive (e.g. antioxidants, amino acids, fats) or non-nutritive compounds (e.g. pharmacological substances, carbon- or silica-based polymers) and detoxifying enzymes recommended for use against the toxic effects of different mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklós Mézes
- 1 Szent István University Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences H-2103 Gödöllő Hungary
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Bouaziz C, Martel C, Sharaf el dein O, Abid-Essefi S, Brenner C, Lemaire C, Bacha H. Fusarial Toxin–Induced Toxicity in Cultured Cells and in Isolated Mitochondria Involves PTPC-Dependent Activation of the Mitochondrial Pathway of Apoptosis. Toxicol Sci 2009; 110:363-75. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
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Yazar S, Omurtag GZ. Fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone in cereals. Int J Mol Sci 2008; 9:2062-2090. [PMID: 19330061 PMCID: PMC2635619 DOI: 10.3390/ijms9112062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Revised: 10/26/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins are phytotoxic mycotoxins which are synthesized by various species of the fungal genus Fusarium such as Fusarium verticillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg (ex F.moniliforme Sheldon) and Fusarium proliferatum. The trichothecene (TC) mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produce by species that belong to several fungal genera, especially Fusarium, Stachybotrys, Trichothecium, Trichoderma, Memnoniella and Myrothecium. Fusarium mycotoxins are widely dispersed in cereals and their products. Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic compound produced by Fusarium spp. such as F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Fumonisins, the TCs and ZEA are hazardous for human and animal health. Contamination with TCs causes a number of illnesses in human and animal such as decrease in food consumption (anorexia), depression or inhibition on immune system function and haematoxicity. The purpose of this paper is to give a review of the papers published on the field of fumonisin, TC and ZEA mycotoxins in cereals consumed in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selma Yazar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Marmara University, 34668, Haydarpaşa - İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Gülden Z Omurtag
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Marmara University, 34668, Haydarpaşa - İstanbul, Turkey
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Bergmann F, Yagen B. Toxicological Studies with Trichothecenes, Applied to the Rat BrainIn VivoandIn Vitro. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569549309084187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Pestka JJ, Amuzie CJ. Tissue distribution and proinflammatory cytokine gene expression following acute oral exposure to deoxynivalenol: comparison of weanling and adult mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:2826-31. [PMID: 18614267 PMCID: PMC2620205 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/21/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The frequent presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereal-based foods and the high intake of these foods by children raises particular concerns about the relative susceptibility of this subpopulation to adverse effects evoked by this mycotoxin. We tested the hypothesis that both toxicokinetics and proinflammatory cytokine gene expression following a oral DON exposure at 5mg/kg bw differ between weanling (3-4 wk) and young adult (8-10 wk) female mice. DON was rapidly taken up with maximum plasma concentrations reaching 1.0 microg/ml in adult mice at 15 min, whereas DON levels were approximately twice as much in weanling mice at these times. DON was rapidly cleared in both weanling and adult mice with concentrations being reduced by 78% and 81% of the peak levels, respectively, after 2h. DON accumulation and clearance in spleen, liver, lung and kidney followed similar kinetics to that of plasma with tissue burdens also reaching twice that of adult mice. When TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 mRNAs in spleens (a primary source of systemic proinflammatory cytokines) were used as biomarkers of the DON's effects, expression of these mRNAs was two to three times greater in weanling than adult mouse. However, differences in proinflammatory cytokine expression were less robust or not apparent in the liver or lung. Taken together, these data suggest that young mice are modestly more susceptible than adult mice to the adverse effects of DON and that this might result from a greater toxin tissue burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Pestka
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, 234 G.M. Trout Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1224, United States.
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Keese C, Meyer U, Rehage J, Spilke J, Boguhn J, Breves G, Dänicke S. Ruminal fermentation patterns and parameters of the acid base metabolism in the urine as influenced by the proportion of concentrate in the ration of dairy cows with and withoutFusariumtoxin-contaminated triticale. Arch Anim Nutr 2008; 62:287-302. [DOI: 10.1080/17450390802066443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Keese C, Meyer U, Rehage J, Spilke J, Boguhn J, Breves G, Dänicke S. On the effects of the concentrate proportion of dairy cow rations in the presence and absence of aFusariumtoxin-contaminated triticale on cow performance. Arch Anim Nutr 2008; 62:241-62. [DOI: 10.1080/17450390802066435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Thompson CL, Wang B, Holmes AJ. The immediate environment during postnatal development has long-term impact on gut community structure in pigs. ISME JOURNAL 2008; 2:739-48. [DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2008.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Abstract
Trichothecene mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus are highly toxic to humans and animals. They are commonly found in cereals worldwide, which is not only a concern for food safety, but also highly relevant to the livestock industry. Controlling trichothecenes in food and feed has been a challenge since the toxins are markedly stable under different environmental conditions. Thermal processing is usually ineffective, and chemical treatments generally are expensive and often result in side effects. Previous studies on innovative biological approaches, such as the use of microorganisms and enzymes, to convert the toxins into non or less toxic compounds have shown promise. This review will briefly describe the chemical structures and toxicity of trichothecenes, and examine the microorganisms, including both bacteria and fungi, from various natural sources that are able to detoxify the toxins as either mixed cultures or a pure culture of single isolates. Finally, challenges and innovative strategies in the development of technology to detoxify trichothecenes by microorganisms are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Zhou
- Food Research Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, N1G 5C9 Ontario, Canada
| | - J. He
- Food Research Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, N1G 5C9 Ontario, Canada
| | - J. Gong
- Food Research Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, N1G 5C9 Ontario, Canada
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