Localization of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 gene (SCYA2) to human chromosome 17q11.2-q21.1

CCL2-CCR2 signaling axis in obesity and metabolic diseases

Obesity and metabolic diseases, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular ailments, represent formidable global health challenges, bearing considerable implications for both morbidity and mortality rates. It has become increasingly evident that chronic, low-grade inflammation plays a pivotal role in the genesis and advancement of these conditions. The involvement of C-C chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and its corresponding receptor, C-C chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2), has been extensively documented in numerous inflammatory maladies. Recent evidence indicates that the CCL2/CCR2 pathway extends beyond immune cell recruitment and inflammation, exerting a notable influence on the genesis and progression of metabolic syndrome. The present review seeks to furnish a comprehensive exposition of the CCL2-CCR2 signaling axis within the context of obesity and metabolic disorders, elucidating its molecular mechanisms, functional roles, and therapeutic implications.

Engineered nanodrug targeting oxidative stress for treatment of acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical syndrome characterized by a rapid decline in renal function, and is associated with a high risk of death. Many pathological changes happen in the process of AKI, including crucial alterations to oxidative stress levels. Numerous efforts have thus been made to develop effective medicines to scavenge excess reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, researchers have encountered several significant challenges, including unspecific biodistribution, high biotoxicity, and in vivo instability. To address these problems, engineered nanoparticles have been developed to target oxidative stress and treat AKI. This review thoroughly discusses the methods that empower nanodrugs to specifically target the glomerular filtration barrier and presents the latest achievements in engineering novel ROS-scavenging nanodrugs in clustered sections. The analysis of each study's breakthroughs and imperfections visualizes the progress made in developing effective nanodrugs with specific biodistribution and oxidative stress-targeting capabilities. This review fills the blank of a comprehensive outline over current progress in applying nanotechnology to treat AKI, providing potential insights for further research.

SGLT2 Inhibitor—Dapagliflozin Attenuates Diabetes-Induced Renal Injury by Regulating Inflammation through a CYP4A/20-HETE Signaling Mechanism

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a serious complication of diabetes, affecting millions of people worldwide. Inflammation and oxidative stress are key contributors to the development and progression of DKD, making them potential targets for therapeutic interventions. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) have emerged as a promising class of drugs, with evidence demonstrating that they can improve renal outcomes in people with diabetes. However, the exact mechanism by which SGLT2i exert their renoprotective effects is not yet fully understood. This study demonstrates that dapagliflozin treatment attenuates renal injury observed in type 2 diabetic mice. This is evidenced by the reduction in renal hypertrophy and proteinuria. Furthermore, dapagliflozin decreases tubulointerstitial fibrosis and glomerulosclerosis by mitigating the generation of reactive oxygen species and inflammation, which are activated through the production of CYP4A-induced 20-HETE. Our findings provide insights onto a novel mechanistic pathway by which SGLT2i exerts their renoprotective effects. Overall, and to our knowledge, the study provides critical insights into the pathophysiology of DKD and represents an important step towards improving outcomes for people with this devastating condition.

Evaluation of IL-10, MCP-1, IFN gamma, and protectin D1 levels in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis

PURPOSE

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is one of the most prevalent autoimmune endocrine diseases and caused by the loss of immune tolerance for the thyroid gland. Many pathophysiological mechanisms were speculated about the development of HT. In our study, we aimed to reveal the relationship between HT and IL-10, MCP-1, IFNɤ, and PD1 levels and compare them with control subjects.

METHODS

We collected 37 patients with HT and 25 controls referred to our outpatient clinic. The diagnosis of HT was based on the detection of circulating antibodies to thyroid antigens and decreasing echogenicity on thyroid USG in patients with appropriate clinical characteristics. Serum IL-10, MCP-1, IFNɤ, and PD1 levels were detected using an ELISA KIT (96 T) method according to the manufacturer's instructions.

RESULTS

All subjects were euthyroid (median TSH level was 1.68 mU/L in HT vs 1.83 mU/L in the controls, p = 0.672). Twenty-three of 37 patients with HT were taking L-thyroxin replacement. Levels of serum IL-10, IFNɤ, and PD1 in patients with HT were higher than the controls, but the differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.393, p = 0.495, and p = 0.052 respectively). The serum levels of MCP-1 in HT patients were statistically different and higher than the controls (p = 0.018). Correlation analysis displayed significant associations between IL-10, MCP-1, IFNɤ, and PD1 levels.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that serum MCP-1 levels in HT patients were significantly increased; on the other hand, significant difference was not found between HT patients and the controls in terms of serum IL-10, IFNɤ, and PD1 levels.

The Role of the Gallbladder, the Intestinal Barrier and the Gut Microbiota in the Development of Food Allergies and Other Disorders

The microbiota present in the gastrointestinal tract is involved in the development or prevention of food allergies and autoimmune disorders; these bacteria can enter the gallbladder and, depending on the species involved, can either be benign or cause significant diseases. Occlusion of the gallbladder, usually due to the presence of calculi blocking the bile duct, facilitates microbial infection and inflammation, which can be serious enough to require life-saving surgery. In addition, the biliary salts are secreted into the intestine and can affect the gut microbiota. The interaction between the gut microbiota, pathogenic organisms, and the human immune system can create intestinal dysbiosis, generating a variety of syndromes including the development of food allergies and autoimmune disorders. The intestinal microbiota can aggravate certain food allergies, which become severe when the integrity of the intestinal barrier is affected, allowing bacteria, or their metabolites, to cross the intestinal barrier and invade the bloodstream, affecting distal body organs. This article deals with health conditions and severe diseases that are either influenced by the gut flora or caused by gallbladder obstruction and inflammation, as well as putative treatments for those illnesses.

MCP-1 targeting: Shutting off an engine for tumor development

A large amount of research has proven that monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) is associated with different types of disease, including autoimmune, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, several studies have found that MCP-1 is associated with tumor development. MCP-1 expression level in the tumor microenvironment is associated with tumor development, including in tumor invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune cell infiltration. However, the precise mechanism involved is currently being investigated. MCP-1 exerts its effects mainly via the MCP-1/C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 axis and leads to the activation of classical signaling pathways, such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, ERK/GSK-3β/Snail, c-Raf/MEK/ERK and MAPK in different cells. The specific mechanism is still under debate; however, target therapy utilizing MCP-1 as a neutralizing antibody has been found to have a detrimental effect on tumor development. The aim of the present review was to examine the effect of MCP-1 on tumor development from several aspects, including its structure, its involvement in signaling pathways, the participating cells, and the therapeutic agents targeting MCP-1. The improved understanding into the structure of MCP-1 and the mechanism of action may facilitate new and practical therapeutic agents to achieve maximum performance in the treatment of patients with cancer.

Does C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (CCL2) Link Obesity to a Pro-Inflammatory State?

The mechanisms of how obesity contributes to the development of cardio-metabolic diseases are not entirely understood. Obesity is frequently associated with adipose tissue dysfunction, characterized by, e.g., adipocyte hypertrophy, ectopic fat accumulation, immune cell infiltration, and the altered secretion of adipokines. Factors secreted from adipose tissue may induce and/or maintain a local and systemic low-grade activation of the innate immune system. Attraction of macrophages into adipose tissue and altered crosstalk between macrophages, adipocytes, and other cells of adipose tissue are symptoms of metabolic inflammation. Among several secreted factors attracting immune cells to adipose tissue, chemotactic C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) (also described as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)) has been shown to play a crucial role in adipose tissue macrophage infiltration. In this review, we aimed to summarize and discuss the current knowledge on CCL2 with a focus on its role in linking obesity to cardio-metabolic diseases.

Diabetes and Kidney Disease: Role of Oxidative Stress

Intrarenal oxidative stress plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Enhanced oxidative stress results from overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the context of concomitant, insufficient antioxidant pathways. Renal ROS production in diabetes is predominantly mediated by various NADPH oxidases (NOXs), but a defective antioxidant system as well as mitochondrial dysfunction may also contribute. Recent Advances: Effective agents targeting the source of ROS generation hold the promise to rescue the kidney from oxidative damage and prevent subsequent progression of DKD. Critical Issues and Future Directions: In the present review, we summarize and critically analyze molecular and cellular mechanisms that have been demonstrated to be involved in NOX-induced renal injury in diabetes, with particular focus on the role of increased glomerular injury, the development of albuminuria, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, novel agents targeting NOX isoforms are discussed. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 25, 657-684.

A Potential Contribution of Chemokine Network Dysfunction to the Depressive Disorders

In spite of many years of research, the pathomechanism of depression has not yet been elucidated. Among many hypotheses, the immune theory has generated a substantial interest. Up till now, it has been thought that depression is accompanied by the activation of inflammatory response and increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. However, recently this view has become controversial, mainly due to the family of small proteins called chemokines. They play a key role in the modulation of peripheral function of the immune system by controlling immune reactions, mediating immune cell communication, and regulating chemotaxis and cell adhesion. Last studies underline significance of chemokines in the central nervous system, not only in the neuromodulation but also in the regulation of neurodevelopmental processes, neuroendocrine functions and in mediating the action of classical neurotransmitters. Moreover, it was demonstrated that these proteins are responsible for maintaining interactions between neuronal and glial cells both in the developing and adult brain also in the course of diseases. This review outlines the role of chemokine in the central nervous system under physiological and pathological conditions and their involvement in processes underlying depressive disorder. It summarizes the most important data from experimental and clinical studies.

Time course of chemokine expression and leukocyte infiltration after acute skeletal muscle injury in mice

Innate pro-inflammatory processes, such as chemokine signaling and leukocyte infiltration, predominate during the first 48 h after an acute skeletal muscle injury. However, the time course of chemokine expression and its relationship to leukocyte infiltration after acute muscle injury within this early post-injury time period has not been investigated. In this study, 46 anesthetized female C57BL/6NHsd mice underwent a closed crush injury of the gastrocnemius muscle and were euthanized 4, 8, 24 and 48 h post-injury. Microarray analysis found 14 chemokine genes to be up-regulated during this period, 12 of which are involved in macrophage or neutrophil chemotaxis, with up-regulation peaking at either 8 or 48 h. RT-PCR analysis on select chemokines confirmed the microarray activation pattern. Neutrophil infiltration patterns mirrored the time course of neutrophil-related chemokines with Gr-1-, 1A8- and 7/4-positive neutrophils infiltrating the muscle 4 h after injury, decreasing at 48 h. Conversely, gene expression and relative quantification levels of macrophage-related chemokines Ccl2 and Ccl7 peaked at 8 h, preceding the infiltration of CD68- and F4/80-positive macrophages, and protein expression of Ccl2 in the muscle. The up-regulation of other macrophage-related chemokines and their receptors peaked at 48 h post-injury.

The inflammatory cytokines: molecular biomarkers for major depressive disorder?

Cytokines are pleotropic cell signaling proteins that, in addition to their role as inflammatory mediators, also affect neurotransmitter systems, brain functionality and mood. Here we explore the potential utility of cytokine biomarkers for major depressive disorder. Specifically, we explore how genetic, transcriptomic and proteomic information relating to the cytokines might act as biomarkers, aiding clinical diagnosis and treatment selection processes. We advise future studies to investigate whether cytokine biomarkers might differentiate major depressive disorder patients from other patient groups with overlapping clinical characteristics. Furthermore, we invite future pharmacogenetic studies to investigate whether early antidepressant-induced changes to cytokine mRNA or protein levels precede behavioral changes and act as longer-term predictors of clinical antidepressant response.

The human oviduct transcriptome reveals an anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, secretory and matrix-stable environment during embryo transit

The human oviduct serves as a conduit for spermatozoa in the peri-ovulatory phase and nurtures and facilitates transport of the developing embryo for nidation during the luteal phase. Interactions between the embryo and oviductal epithelial surface proteins and secreted products during embryo transit are largely undefined. This study investigated gene expression in the human oviduct in the early luteal versus follicular phases to identify candidate genes and biomolecular processes that may participate in maturation and transport of the embryo as it traverses this tissue. Oviductal RNA was hybridized to oligonucleotide arrays and resulting data were analysed by bioinformatic approaches. There were 650 genes significantly down-regulated and 683 genes significantly up-regulated (P<0.05) in the luteal versus follicular phase. Quantitative real-time PCR, immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry confirmed selected gene expression and cellular protein localization. Down-regulated genes involved macrophage recruitment, immunomodulation and matrix-degeneration, and up-regulated genes involved anti-inflammatory, ion transport, anti-angiogenic and early pregnancy recognition. The oviduct displayed some similarities and differences in progesterone-regulated genes compared with the human endometrium. Together, these data suggest a unique hormonally regulated environment during embryo development, maturation and transport through human oviduct and some conservation of progesterone signalling in tissues of common embryological origin. The oviduct serves as a conduit for spermatozoa in the peri-ovulatory phase and it nurtures and facilitates transport of the developing embryo during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, although precise interactions between the embryo and oviductal epithelium and secreted products are largely undefined. Herein, we investigated gene expression in human oviduct to identify candidate genes and processes that may participate in maturation and transport of the embryo as it develops implantation competence. Total RNA from human ampullary oviducts in the early luteal versus follicular phases was isolated and hybridized to oligonucleotide arrays. The data, analysed by bioinformatic approaches, revealed that 650 genes were significantly down- and 683 genes were significantly up-regulated in the luteal phase. Quantitative real-time PCR, immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry confirmed selected gene expression and cellular protein localization. The data demonstrated down-regulation of genes involved in macrophage recruitment, immunomodulation and matrix degeneration and up-regulation of ion transport and secretions, as well as anti-angiogenic and early pregnancy recognition. Together, these data suggest a unique hormonally regulated environment during embryo development, maturation and transport through the human oviduct and provide insight into mechanisms influencing acquisition of implantation competence of the human embryo during its passage through the oviduct en route to the uterine endometrium.

CC chemokine receptors and chronic inflammation--therapeutic opportunities and pharmacological challenges

Chemokines are a family of low molecular weight proteins with an essential role in leukocyte trafficking during both homeostasis and inflammation. The CC class of chemokines consists of at least 28 members (CCL1-28) that signal through 10 known chemokine receptors (CCR1-10). CC chemokine receptors are expressed predominantly by T cells and monocyte-macrophages, cell types associated predominantly with chronic inflammation occurring over weeks or years. Chronic inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and metabolic syndrome are characterized by continued leukocyte infiltration into the inflammatory site, driven in large part by excessive chemokine production. Over years or decades, persistent inflammation may lead to loss of tissue architecture and function, causing severe disability or, in the case of atherosclerosis, fatal outcomes such as myocardial infarction or stroke. Despite the existence of several clinical strategies for targeting chronic inflammation, these diseases remain significant causes of morbidity and mortality globally, with a concomitant economic impact. Thus, the development of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of chronic inflammatory disease continues to be a priority. In this review we introduce CC chemokine receptors as critical mediators of chronic inflammatory responses and explore their potential role as pharmacological targets. We discuss functions of individual CC chemokine receptors based on in vitro pharmacological data as well as transgenic animal studies. Focusing on three key forms of chronic inflammation--rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and metabolic syndrome--we describe the pathologic function of CC chemokine receptors and their possible relevance as therapeutic targets.

Association between CCL2 haplotypes and knee osteoarthritis

We examined five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and reconstructed 5-locus haplotypes of the CCL2 gene, in knee osteoarthritis (OA) cases and in controls. The CCL2 rs2857657 variant (G) allele was observed more frequently in female knee OA cases than in controls. One haplotype (H5) was observed exclusively in the control group (f = 2.3%). Genetic variation in the CCL2 gene may be associated with knee OA.

Tag SNP polymorphism of CCL2 and its role in clinical tuberculosis in Han Chinese pediatric population

BACKGROUND

Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 CCL2/MCP-1 is among the key signaling molecules of innate immunity; in particular, it is involved in recruitment of mononuclear and other cells in response to infection, including tuberculosis (TB) and is essential for granuloma formation.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We identified a tag SNP for the CCL2/MCP-1 gene (rs4586 C/T). In order to understand whether this SNP may serve to evaluate the contribution of the CCL2 gene to the expression of TB disease, we further analysed distribution of its alleles and genotypes in 301 TB cases versus 338 non-infected controls (all BCG vaccinated) representing a high-risk pediatric population of North China. In the male TB subgroup, the C allele was identified in a higher rate (P = 0.045), and, acting dominantly, was found to be a risk factor for clinical TB (P = 0.029). Homozygous TT genotype was significantly associated with lower CSF mononuclear leukocyte (ML) counts in patients with tuberculous meningitis (TBM) (P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The present study found an association of the CCL2 tag SNP rs4586 C allele and pediatric TB disease in males, suggesting that gender may affect the susceptibility to TB even in children. The association of homozygous TT genotype with decreased CSF mononuclear leukocyte (ML) count not only suggests a clinical significance of this SNP, but indicates its potential to assist in the clinical assessment of suspected TBM, where delay is critical and diagnosis is difficult.

Relationship between oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines in diabetic nephropathy

The prevalence of diabetes has dramatically increased worldwide due to the vast increase in the obesity rate. Diabetic nephropathy is one of the major complications of type 1 and type 2 diabetes and it is currently the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Hyperglycemia is the driving force for the development of diabetic nephropathy. It is well known that hyperglycemia increases the production of free radicals resulting in oxidative stress. While increases in oxidative stress have been shown to contribute to the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy, the mechanisms by which this occurs are still being investigated. Historically, diabetes was not thought to be an immune disease; however, there is increasing evidence supporting a role for inflammation in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Inflammatory cells, cytokines, and profibrotic growth factors including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-18 (IL-18), and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) have all been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy via increased vascular inflammation and fibrosis. The stimulus for the increase in inflammation in diabetes is still under investigation; however, reactive oxygen species are a primary candidate. Thus, targeting oxidative stress-inflammatory cytokine signaling could improve therapeutic options for diabetic nephropathy. The current review will focus on understanding the relationship between oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines in diabetic nephropathy to help elucidate the question of which comes first in the progression of diabetic nephropathy, oxidative stress, or inflammation.

Inflammatory cytokines as predictive markers for early detection and progression of diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy is a major complication of diabetes mellitus and the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Both hyperglycemia and hypertension (systemic and/or intraglomerular) are established causal factors for diabetic nephropathy. Nonetheless, there is growing evidence that activated innate immunity and inflammation are also contributing factors to the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. This notion is based on increasing evidence indicating that both cytokines-chemokines and pro-fibrotic growth factors are important players in the progression of diabetic nephropathy, effectively accelerating and exacerbating inflammatory and fibrotic processes leading to end-stage renal disease. In this review, we focus on several predominant cytokines-chemokines as potential predictive markers for diabetic nephropathy. These cytokines-chemokines may also be helpful as biomarkers to monitor the progression of the disease and the impact of interventional modalities aimed at halting eventual manifestation of end-stage renal disease in diabetic patients.

CC chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) promotes prostate cancer tumorigenesis and metastasis

CCL2 is a chemokine known to recruit monocytes and macrophages to sites of inflammation. A growing body of research suggests CCL2 is progressively overexpressed in tumor beds and may play a role in the clinical progression of solid tumors. Cancer cells derived from several solid tumor types demonstrate functional receptors for CCL2, suggesting this chemokine may achieve tumorigenicity through direct effects on malignant cells; however, a variety of normal host cells that co-exist with cancer in the tumor microenvironment also respond to CCL2. These cells include macrophages, osteoclasts, endothelial cells, T-lymphocytes, and myeloid-derived immune suppressor cells (MDSCs). CCL2 mediated interactions between normal and malignant cells in the tumor microenvironment and plays a multi-faceted role in tumor progression.

Polymorphisms in CCL2&CCL5 chemokines/chemokine receptors genes and their association with diseases

BACKGROUND

Chemokines and chemokine receptors are major mediators of leukocyte trafficking into the sites of the immune response. They participate in defence against microbial infection, in Th1/Th2 polarization of the immune response, allograft rejection and angiogenesis/angiostasis as well as in tumorigenesis and metastasis. To date, several functional polymorphisms of chemokine and chemokine receptor genes have been discovered that are able to deregulate chemokine system and, therefore, they may interfere with the pathogenesis of a large number of inflammatory and other diseases. In this review we focus on the known polymorphisms of two chemokines: CCL2, CCL5 and their corresponding receptors (CCR2, CCR5) and we also discuss their associations with susceptibility and progression to selected immune-mediated diseases.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Based on relevant literature this article gives a short overview of case-control and family studies regarding effect of the genetic factors on diseases such as coronary artery disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus, lung diseases and others.

CONCLUSION

Recent advance in the identification of chemokine genetic background of the diseases could provide opportunity for pharmacological treatment. However, we need more information about posttranscriptional events to understand functional relevance of polymorphisms and to discovery new avenues to blocking disease development.

Differential transcriptional regulation of the monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) gene in tumorigenic and non-tumorigenic HPV 18 positive cells: the role of the chromatin structure and AP-1 composition

The expression of the monocyte-chemoattractant-protein-1 (MCP-1) is closely linked with a non-tumorigenic phenotype in somatic cell hybrids made between the human papillomavirus type 18 (HPV 18) positive cervical carcinoma cell line HeLa and normal human fibroblasts. In contrast, MCP-1 transcription is absent in tumorigenic segregants derived from the same hybrids or in parental HeLa cells. Selectivity of MCP-1 transcription, which is regulated at the level of initiation of transcription, is mainly based on differences in the location and extension of DNAse I-hypersensitive regions (DHSR) at both ends of the gene. While TNF-alpha only moderately increases the sensitivity of pre-existing 5'-DHSRs, a 3'-end DHSR became strongly induced exclusively in non-malignant hybrids. DNA sequencing showed that the 3'-DHSR coincides with an additional AP-1 site located approximately 600 bp downstream of the polyadenylation site. Analyses of AP-1 composition revealed that MCP-1 is only expressed in those cells where jun-family members were mainly heterodimerized with the fos-related protein fra-1. In contrast, in tumorigenic cells the 1: 1 ratio between jun and fra-1 is disturbed and the MCP-1 gene is no longer expressed. Hence, alterations in the heterodimerization pattern of AP-1 and its selective accessibility to opened chromatin may represent a novel regulatory pathway in the regulation of chemokines in malignant and non-malignant HPV-positive cells.

Physiological and cytogenetic characterization of immortalized human endometriotic cells containing episomal simian virus 40 DNA

The study of misplaced endometrial cells, which abnormally implant and grow outside the uterine cavity, is of considerable interest for the understanding of the pathophysiology of endometriosis. However, endometriotic cells, particularly epithelial cells, required for primary cell culture are not easily available. We report here the characterization of an endometriotic cell line immortalized after infection of primary endometriotic cell cultures with simian virus 40. Transformed cells express T-antigen, and blot hybridization analysis showed that the viral genome is present as an episome. Cytogenetic analysis revealed a polyploid karyotype with numerical and structural rearrangements involving mainly the same chromosomes (6, 10, 11, 15, and 17). The cell line has been maintained in culture for over 80 passages and was still proliferating without any noticeable change in the biological properties investigated. Transformed endometriotic cells expressed both progesterone and estradiol receptors and were stimulated by these ovarian hormones to secrete monocyte chemotactic protein-1, a factor that may play an important role in the recruitment and activation of peritoneal macrophages. In addition, this response was enhanced in interleukin-1-treated cells. Taken together, these findings support the view that this cell line may be an interesting tool for the study of the pathophysiology of endometriosis.

The MCP/eotaxin subfamily of CC chemokines

Migration of leukocytes from the bone marrow to the circulation, the primary lymphoid organs and inflammatory sites is directed by chemokines and specific receptor interactions. Besides the role of this group of low molecular weight cytokines in leukocyte attraction and activation, anti-HIV and hematopoietic activities were also attributed to chemokines. On the basis of the number and arrangement of the conserved cysteines, chemokines are subdivided in two multi-member families, namely the CXC and CC chemokines, whereas fractalkine (CX3C) and lymphotactin (C) are unique relatives. The CC chemokines possess four cysteines of which the first two are adjacent. Functionally, they form a rather heterogeneous family. Here, the focus is on the monocyte chemotactic proteins and eotaxin which, on a structural basis, can be considered as a CC chemokine subfamily. Not only the protein sequences, but also the gene structures, chromosomal location, biological activities and receptor usage exhibit considerable similarities. The review is complemented with a comparison of the biological functions of the MCP/eotaxin-subfamily in physiology and pathology.

Mapping of MCP-1 functional domains by peptide analysis and site-directed mutagenesis

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) is a member of the beta chemokine family which acts through specific seven transmembrane receptors to recruit monocytes, basophils, and T lymphocytes to sites of inflammation. To identify regions of the human MCP-1 protein which are important for its biological activity, we have synthesized domain-specific peptides and tested their ability to antagonize MCP-1 binding and chemotaxis in THP-1 cells. We have found that an intercysteine first loop peptide encompassing amino acids 13-35 inhibits MCP-1 binding and chemotactic activity, while peptides representing the amino-terminus (amino acids 1-10), second loop (amino acids 37-51), and carboxy-terminus (amino acids 56-71) of MCP-1 have no effect. In addition, we have found that cyclization of the first loop peptide by disulfide linkage and blocking the C-terminus of the peptide by amidation increases the activity of this peptide to block MCP-1 binding and chemotaxis. In order to specifically identify amino acid residues within the first loop that are crucial for MCP-1 functional activity, we have substituted alanine for tyrosine (Y13A) or arginine (R18A) in MCP-1 recombinant proteins. While baculovirus produced wild type and R18A MCP-1 proteins are indistinguishable in their ability to induce THP-1 chemotaxis and show modest effects in binding activity compared to commercially available recombinant MCP-1 protein, the Y13A point mutation causes a dramatic loss in function. The identification of functional domains of MCP-1 will assist in the design of MCP-1 receptor antagonists which may be clinically beneficial in a number of inflammatory diseases.