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Lo JO, Hedges JC, Chou WH, Tager KR, Bachli ID, Hagen OL, Murphy SK, Hanna CB, Easley CA. Influence of substance use on male reproductive health and offspring outcomes. Nat Rev Urol 2024:10.1038/s41585-024-00868-w. [PMID: 38664544 DOI: 10.1038/s41585-024-00868-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/30/2024]
Abstract
The prevalence of substance use globally is rising and is highest among men of reproductive age. In Africa, and South and Central America, cannabis use disorder is most prevalent and in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, Central America, Canada and the USA, opioid use disorder predominates. Substance use might be contributing to the ongoing global decline in male fertility, and emerging evidence has linked paternal substance use with short-term and long-term adverse effects on offspring development and outcomes. This trend is concerning given that substance use is increasing, including during the COVID-19 pandemic. Preclinical studies have shown that male preconception substance use can influence offspring brain development and neurobehaviour through epigenetic mechanisms. Additionally, human studies investigating paternal health behaviours during the prenatal period suggest that paternal tobacco, opioid, cannabis and alcohol use is associated with reduced offspring mental health, in particular hyperactivity and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The potential effects of paternal substance use are areas in which to focus public health efforts and health-care provider counselling of couples or individuals interested in conceiving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie O Lo
- Department of Urology, Oregon Heath & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
| | - Jason C Hedges
- Department of Urology, Oregon Heath & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Wesley H Chou
- Department of Urology, Oregon Heath & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Kylie R Tager
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia College of Public Health, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Ian D Bachli
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia College of Public Health, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Olivia L Hagen
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Susan K Murphy
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Carol B Hanna
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Charles A Easley
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia College of Public Health, Athens, GA, USA
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Bell AD, MacCallum C, Margolese S, Walsh Z, Wright P, Daeninck PJ, Mandarino E, Lacasse G, Kaur Deol J, de Freitas L, St. Pierre M, Belle-Isle L, Gagnon M, Bevan S, Sanchez T, Arlt S, Monahan-Ellison M, O'Hara J, Boivin M, Costiniuk C. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Cannabis and Cannabinoid-Based Medicines in the Management of Chronic Pain and Co-Occurring Conditions. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:669-687. [PMID: 36971587 PMCID: PMC10998028 DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: One in five individuals live with chronic pain globally, which often co-occurs with sleep problems, anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders. Although these conditions are commonly managed with cannabinoid-based medicines (CBM), health care providers report lack of information on the risks, benefits, and appropriate use of CBM for therapeutic purposes. Aims: We present these clinical practice guidelines to help clinicians and patients navigate appropriate CBM use in the management of chronic pain and co-occurring conditions. Materials and Methods: We conducted a systematic review of studies investigating the use of CBM for the treatment of chronic pain. Articles were dually reviewed in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Clinical recommendations were developed based on available evidence from the review. Values and preferences and practical tips have also been provided to support clinical application. The GRADE system was used to rate the strength of recommendations and quality of evidence. Results: From our literature search, 70 articles met inclusion criteria and were utilized in guideline development, including 19 systematic reviews and 51 original research studies. Research typically demonstrates moderate benefit of CBM in chronic pain management. There is also evidence for efficacy of CBM in the management of comorbidities, including sleep problems, anxiety, appetite suppression, and for managing symptoms in some chronic conditions associated with pain including HIV, multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia, and arthritis. Conclusions: All patients considering CBM should be educated on risks and adverse events. Patients and clinicians should work collaboratively to identify appropriate dosing, titration, and administration routes for each individual. Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO no. 135886.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan D. Bell
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Caroline MacCallum
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Shari Margolese
- Canadian HIV Trials Network, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Zach Walsh
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
| | | | - Paul J. Daeninck
- Department of Internal Medicine, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
- CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Enrico Mandarino
- Canadian HIV Trials Network, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- MJardin Group Canada, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Jagpaul Kaur Deol
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Lauren de Freitas
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | - Marilou Gagnon
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada
| | | | - Tatiana Sanchez
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
| | - Stephanie Arlt
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Cecilia Costiniuk
- Chronic Viral Illness Service/Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada
- McGill Cannabis Research Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada
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Srinivasan M, Hamouda RK, Ambedkar B, Arzoun HI, Sahib I, Fondeur J, Escudero Mendez L, Mohammed L. The Effect of Marijuana on the Incidence and Evolution of Male Infertility: A Systematic Review. Cureus 2021; 13:e20119. [PMID: 34984155 PMCID: PMC8720305 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.20119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, the consumption of marijuana or any other form of cannabis, whether medically, recreationally, or illegally, has been escalating worldwide. The additive effect of marijuana and the easy availability could make this increasing trend possible for imperceptible outcomes affecting one's physiology on multiple levels. The rationale of this review is to study and enumerate several effects marijuana may have on male reproductive organs, especially in men who are dealing with subfertility or infertility issues. A literature search was done from September 1, 2021, to September 14, 2021, using the following databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (BASE), University of California, Santa Barbara Library, and PubMed Central. The studies included in this review comprised systematic reviews, cross-sectional, case-control, cohort, and longitudinal studies published during 2010-2021 in the English language. After an extensive review of all studies, the quality was assessed using appropriate quality appraisal tools, and 15 eligible reports were identified and included. In-depth research on the final studies concluded that marijuana seems to have specific adverse effects on the sperm parameters, namely, sperm count, concentration, motility, morphology, capacitation, and viability, thus affecting fertility in men. Certain hormone levels, including testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone, also drew attention, potentially impacting men's fertility; however, a finite inference could not be substantiated by the studies. Although the studies show significant effects in sperm parameters and organic sexual dysfunction, it is also to be noted that these studies are observational only and are conducted in small groups in multicenter geographical locations where other lifestyle patterns could be confounding. Given this restriction, it is suggested that further human trials on a larger scale be conducted to provide an even more concrete conclusion, especially after considering other factors that may affect the generalization of these trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirra Srinivasan
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Ranim K Hamouda
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Baba Ambedkar
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Hadia I Arzoun
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Isra Sahib
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Jack Fondeur
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | | | - Lubna Mohammed
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
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Ryan KS, Bash JC, Hanna CB, Hedges JC, Lo JO. Effects of marijuana on reproductive health: preconception and gestational effects. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2021; 28:558-565. [PMID: 34709212 PMCID: PMC8580253 DOI: 10.1097/med.0000000000000686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Recent widespread legalization changes have promoted the availability of marijuana and its increased potency and perceived safety. The limited evidence on reproductive and perinatal outcomes from marijuana exposure is enough to warrant concern and action. The objective of this review is to provide a current and relevant summary of the recent literature surrounding this topic. RECENT FINDINGS The available published studies on the effect of marijuana exposure on reproductive health and pregnancy outcomes are conflicting. Human studies are often observational or retrospective and confounded by self-report and polysubstance use. However, the current, limited evidence suggests that marijuana use adversely affects male and female reproductive health. Additionally, prenatal marijuana exposure has been reported to be associated with an increased risk of preterm birth and small for gestational age infants. SUMMARY With the increasing prevalence of marijuana use, there is an urgent need for evidence-driven recommendations and guidelines for couples interested in conception, affected by infertility or who are expecting. At this time, no amount of marijuana use during conception or pregnancy is known to be well tolerated and the limited available evidence suggests that the safest choice is to abstain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly S. Ryan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland
| | - Jasper C. Bash
- Department of Urology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland
| | - Carol B. Hanna
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Jason C. Hedges
- Department of Urology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland
| | - Jamie O. Lo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
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Nassan FL, Arvizu M, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Williams PL, Attaman J, Petrozza J, Hauser R, Chavarro J. Marijuana smoking and markers of testicular function among men from a fertility centre. Hum Reprod 2020; 34:715-723. [PMID: 30726923 PMCID: PMC6443114 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dez002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION Is marijuana smoking associated with semen quality, sperm DNA integrity or serum concentrations of reproductive hormones among subfertile men? SUMMARY ANSWER Men who had ever smoked marijuana had higher sperm concentration and count and lower serum FSH concentrations than men who had never smoked marijuana; no differences were observed between current and past marijuana smokers. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Studies of marijuana abuse in humans and animal models of exposure to marijuana suggest that marijuana smoking adversely impacts spermatogenesis. Data is less clear for moderate consumption levels and multiple studies have found higher serum testosterone concentrations among marijuana consumers. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION This longitudinal study included 662 subfertile men enroled at the Massachusetts General Hospital Fertility Center between 2000 and 2017. The men provided a total of 1143 semen samples; 317 men also provided blood samples in which we measured reproductive hormones. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS Use of marijuana and other drugs was self-reported at baseline. Standard protocols were followed for measuring semen quality, sex hormones and DNA integrity. We used linear mixed effect models with a random intercept to evaluate the associations of self-reported marijuana smoking at enrolment with semen parameters from subsequently collected samples, and linear regression models for sperm DNA integrity and serum reproductive hormones, while adjusting for confounders including smoking and cocaine use. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Men who had ever smoked marijuana (N = 365) had significantly higher sperm concentration (62.7 (95% confidence interval: 56.0, 70.3) million/mL) than men who had never smoked marijuana (N = 297) (45.4 (38.6, 53.3) million/mL) after adjusting for potential confounders (P = 0.0003). There were no significant differences in sperm concentration between current (N = 74) (59.5 (47.3, 74.8) million/mL) and past marijuana smokers (N = 291) (63.5 (56.1, 72.0) million/mL; P = 0.60). A similar pattern was observed for total sperm count. Furthermore, the adjusted prevalence of sperm concentration and total sperm motility below WHO reference values among marijuana smokers was less than half that of never marijuana smokers. Marijuana smokers had significantly lower follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) concentrations than never marijuana smokers (-16% (-27%, -4%)) and there were no significant differences between current and past marijuana smokers (P = 0.53). Marijuana smoking was not associated with other semen parameters, with markers of sperm DNA integrity or with reproductive hormones other than FSH. Chance findings cannot be excluded due to the multiple comparisons. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION Our results may not be generalisable to men from the general population. Marijuana smoking was self-reported and there may be misclassification of the exposure. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS These findings are not consistent with a deleterious effect of marijuana on testicular function. Whether these findings are reflective of the previously described role of the endocannabinoid system in spermatogenesis or a spurious association requires confirmation in further studies. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) The project was funded by grants R01ES009718 and P30ES000002 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). None of the authors has any conflicts of interest to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiby L Nassan
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Nutrition, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mariel Arvizu
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lidia Mínguez-Alarcón
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paige L Williams
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jill Attaman
- Vincent Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John Petrozza
- Vincent Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Russ Hauser
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Vincent Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jorge Chavarro
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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Reece AS, Hulse GK. Cannabis Consumption Patterns Explain the East-West Gradient in Canadian Neural Tube Defect Incidence: An Ecological Study. Glob Pediatr Health 2019; 6:2333794X19894798. [PMID: 31853464 PMCID: PMC6906350 DOI: 10.1177/2333794x19894798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While a known link between prenatal cannabis exposure and anencephaly exists, the
relationship of prenatal cannabis exposure with neural tube defects (NTDs)
generally has not been defined. Published data from Canada Health and Statistics
Canada were used to assess this relationship. Both cannabis use and NTDs were
shown to follow an east-west and north-south gradient. Last year cannabis
consumption was significantly associated (P < .0001;
cannabis use–time interaction P < .0001). These results were
confirmed when estimates of termination for anomaly were used. Canada Health
population data allowed the calculation of an NTD odds ratio) of 1.27 (95%
confidence interval = 1.19-1.37; P < 10−11) for
high-risk provinces versus the remainder with an attributable fraction in
exposed populations of 16.52% (95% confidence interval = 12.22-20.62). Data show
a robust positive statistical association between cannabis consumption as both a
qualitative and quantitative variable and NTDs on a background of declining NTD
incidence. In the context of multiple mechanistic pathways these strong
statistical findings implicate causal mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Stuart Reece
- University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia.,Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Gary Kenneth Hulse
- University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia.,Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
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Characterisation and localisation of the endocannabinoid system components in the adult human testis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12866. [PMID: 31537814 PMCID: PMC6753062 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49177-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Heavy use of cannabis (marijuana) has been associated with decreased semen quality, which may reflect disruption of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the male reproductive tract by exogenous cannabinoids. Components of ECS have been previously described in human spermatozoa and in the rodent testis but there is little information on the ECS expression within the human testis. In this study we characterised the main components of the ECS by immunohistochemistry (IHC) on archived testis tissue samples from 15 patients, and by in silico analysis of existing transcriptome datasets from testicular cell populations. The presence of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in the human testis was confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization imaging analysis. Endocannabinoid-synthesising enzymes; diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL) and N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine-specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD), were detected in germ cells and somatic cells, respectively. The cannabinoid receptors, CNR1 and CNR2 were detected at a low level in post-meiotic germ cells and Leydig- and peritubular cells. Different transcripts encoding distinct receptor isoforms (CB1, CB1A, CB1B and CB2A) were also differentially distributed, mainly in germ cells. The cannabinoid-metabolising enzymes were abundantly present; the α/β-hydrolase domain-containing protein 2 (ABHD2) in all germ cell types, except early spermatocytes, the monoacylglycerol lipase (MGLL) in Sertoli cells, and the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) in late spermatocytes and post-meiotic germ cells. Our findings are consistent with a direct involvement of the ECS in regulation of human testicular physiology, including spermatogenesis and Leydig cell function. The study provides new evidence supporting observations that recreational cannabis can have possible deleterious effects on human testicular function.
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Abstract
PURPOSE With cannabis consumption on the rise and use prominent among males of reproductive age it is essential to understand the potential impact of cannabis on male fertility. We reviewed the literature regarding the effects of cannabis on male fertility. MATERIALS AND METHODS We performed a literature search using PubMed®/MEDLINE® to identify relevant studies of the effects of cannabis on male fertility. Relevant studies were identified and reviewed. RESULTS The strongest evidence of cannabis induced alterations in male fertility is in the category of semen parameters. Research supports a role for cannabis in reducing sperm count and concentration, inducing abnormalities in sperm morphology, reducing sperm motility and viability, and inhibiting capacitation and fertilizing capacity. Animal models demonstrate a role for cannabis in testicular atrophy, and reduced libido and sexual function but to our knowledge these results have not yet been replicated in human studies. Studies of hormonal changes suggest inconclusive effects on testosterone levels, lowered luteinizing hormone levels and unchanged follicle-stimulating hormone levels. CONCLUSIONS Current research suggests that cannabis may negatively impact male fertility. Further studies are needed to validate that robust findings in animal models will carry over into human experience. Clinicians should be aware of these potential effects when prescribing medical marijuana therapies to men of reproductive age, and they should consider the degree of cannabis use as a possible component of a complete male infertility workup.
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Reece AS, Hulse GK. Impacts of cannabinoid epigenetics on human development: reflections on Murphy et. al. 'cannabinoid exposure and altered DNA methylation in rat and human sperm' epigenetics 2018; 13: 1208-1221. Epigenetics 2019; 14:1041-1056. [PMID: 31293213 PMCID: PMC6773386 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2019.1633868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent data from the Kollins lab (‘Cannabinoid exposure and altered DNA methylation in rat and human sperm’ Epigenetics 2018; 13: 1208–1221) indicated epigenetic effects of cannabis use on sperm in man parallel those in rats and showed substantial shifts in both hypo- and hyper-DNA methylation with the latter predominating. This provides one likely mechanism for the transgenerational transmission of epigenomic instability with sperm as the vector. It therefore contributes important pathophysiological insights into the probable mechanisms underlying the epidemiology of prenatal cannabis exposure potentially explaining diverse features of cannabis-related teratology including effects on the neuraxis, cardiovasculature, immune stimulation, secondary genomic instability and carcinogenesis related to both adult and pediatric cancers. The potentially inheritable and therefore multigenerational nature of these defects needs to be carefully considered in the light of recent teratological and neurobehavioural trends in diverse jurisdictions such as the USA nationally, Hawaii, Colorado, Canada, France and Australia, particularly relating to mental retardation, age-related morbidity and oncogenesis including inheritable cancerogenesis. Increasing demonstrations that the epigenome can respond directly and in real time and retain memories of environmental exposures of many kinds implies that the genome-epigenome is much more sensitive to environmental toxicants than has been generally realized. Issues of long-term multigenerational inheritance amplify these concerns. Further research particularly on the epigenomic toxicology of many cannabinoids is also required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Stuart Reece
- Division of Psychiatry, University of Western Australia , Crawley , Western Australia Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup , Western Australia , Australia
| | - Gary Kenneth Hulse
- Division of Psychiatry, University of Western Australia , Crawley , Western Australia Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup , Western Australia , Australia
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Murphy SK, Itchon-Ramos N, Visco Z, Huang Z, Grenier C, Schrott R, Acharya K, Boudreau MH, Price TM, Raburn DJ, Corcoran DL, Lucas JE, Mitchell JT, McClernon FJ, Cauley M, Hall BJ, Levin ED, Kollins SH. Cannabinoid exposure and altered DNA methylation in rat and human sperm. Epigenetics 2018; 13:1208-1221. [PMID: 30521419 PMCID: PMC6986792 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2018.1554521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the reproductive effects of paternal cannabis exposure. We evaluated associations between cannabis or tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure and altered DNA methylation in sperm from humans and rats, respectively. DNA methylation, measured by reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, differed in the sperm of human users from non-users by at least 10% at 3,979 CpG sites. Pathway analyses indicated Hippo Signaling and Pathways in Cancer as enriched with altered genes (Bonferroni p < 0.02). These same two pathways were also enriched with genes having altered methylation in sperm from THC-exposed versus vehicle-exposed rats (p < 0.01). Data validity is supported by significant correlations between THC exposure levels in humans and methylation for 177 genes, and substantial overlap in THC target genes in rat sperm (this study) and genes previously reported as having altered methylation in the brain of rat offspring born to parents both exposed to THC during adolescence. In humans, cannabis use was also associated with significantly lower sperm concentration. Findings point to possible pre-conception paternal reproductive risks associated with cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan K Murphy
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Nilda Itchon-Ramos
- b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Zachary Visco
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Zhiqing Huang
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Carole Grenier
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Rose Schrott
- c Duke Nicholas School of the Environment , University Program in Environmental Health , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Kelly Acharya
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Marie-Helene Boudreau
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Thomas M Price
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Douglas J Raburn
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - David L Corcoran
- d Duke Center for Genomic and Computational Biology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Joseph E Lucas
- e Social Sciences Research Institute , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - John T Mitchell
- b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - F Joseph McClernon
- b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Marty Cauley
- f Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Brandon J Hall
- g Department of Surgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Edward D Levin
- b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Scott H Kollins
- b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
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Carvalho RK, Santos ML, Souza MR, Rocha TL, Guimarães FS, Anselmo-Franci JA, Mazaro-Costa R. Chronic exposure to cannabidiol induces reproductive toxicity in male Swiss mice. J Appl Toxicol 2018; 38:1215-1223. [PMID: 29766538 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Children and adults with frequent and severe episodes of epilepsy that do not respond to standard treatments (such as carbamazepine, phenytoin and valproate) have long been prescribed cannabidiol (CBD) as an anticonvulsant drug. However, the safety of its chronic use in relation to reproduction has not been fully examined. This study aimed to assess the effects of chronic CBD exposure on the male reproductive system. CBD was orally administered to 21-day-old male Swiss mice at doses of 15 and 30 mg kg-1 daily (CBD 15 and 30 groups, respectively), with a control group receiving sunflower oil, for 34 consecutive days. After a 35 day recovery period, the following parameters were evaluated: weight of reproductive organs, testosterone concentration, spermatogenesis, histomorphometry, daily sperm production and its morphology. The CBD 30 group had a 76% decrease in total circulating testosterone, but it remained within the physiological normal range (240-1100 ng dl-1 ). CBD treatment induced a significant increase in the frequency of stages I-IV and V-VI of spermatogenesis, and a decrease in the frequency of stages VII-VIII and XII. A significant decrease in the number of Sertoli cells was observed only in the CBD 30 group. In both CBD groups the number of spermatozoa in the epididymis tail was reduced by 38%, sperm had head abnormalities, and cytoplasmic droplets were observed in the medial region of flagellum. These results indicated that chronic CBD exposure was associated with changes in the male reproductive system, suggesting its reproductive toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata K Carvalho
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology of Reproduction, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Monaliza L Santos
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology of Reproduction, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Maingredy R Souza
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology of Reproduction, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Thiago L Rocha
- Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Francisco S Guimarães
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Janete A Anselmo-Franci
- Department of Morphology, Stomatology and Physiology, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Renata Mazaro-Costa
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology of Reproduction, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
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12
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Sansone A, Di Dato C, de Angelis C, Menafra D, Pozza C, Pivonello R, Isidori A, Gianfrilli D. Smoke, alcohol and drug addiction and male fertility. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2018; 16:3. [PMID: 29334961 PMCID: PMC5769315 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-018-0320-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, the decline in human fertility has become increasingly more worrying: while therapeutic interventions might help, they are vexing for the couple and often burdened with high failure rates and costs. Prevention is the most successful approach to fertility disorders in males and females alike. We performed a literature review on three of the most common unhealthy habits - tobacco, alcohol and drug addiction - and their reported effects on male fertility. Tobacco smoking is remarkably common in most first-world countries; despite a progressive decline in the US, recent reports suggest a prevalence of more than 30% in subjects of reproductive age - a disturbing perspective, given the well-known ill-effects on reproductive and sexual function as well as general health. Alcohol consumption is often considered socially acceptable, but its negative effects on gonadal function have been consistently reported in the last 30 years. Several studies have reported a variety of negative effects on male fertility following drug abuse - a worrying phenomenon, as illicit drug consumption is on the rise, most notably in younger subjects. While evidence in these regards is still far from solid, mostly as a result of several confounding factors, it is safe to assume that cessation of tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption and recreational drug addiction might represent the best course of action for any couple trying to achieve pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Sansone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Food Science and Endocrinology, Sapienza - University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Carla Di Dato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Food Science and Endocrinology, Sapienza - University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristina de Angelis
- I.O.S.& COLEMAN Srl, Naples, Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Università "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Davide Menafra
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Università "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Carlotta Pozza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Food Science and Endocrinology, Sapienza - University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Rosario Pivonello
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Università "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Andrea Isidori
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Food Science and Endocrinology, Sapienza - University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Gianfrilli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Food Science and Endocrinology, Sapienza - University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161, Rome, Italy
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13
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Marijuana, phytocannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system, and male fertility. J Assist Reprod Genet 2015; 32:1575-88. [PMID: 26277482 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-015-0553-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Marijuana has the highest consumption rate among all of the illicit drugs used in the USA, and its popularity as both a recreational and medicinal drug is increasing especially among men of reproductive age. Male factor infertility is on the increase, and the exposure to the cannabinoid compounds released by marijuana could be a contributing cause. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is deeply involved in the complex regulation of male reproduction through the endogenous release of endocannabinoids and binding to cannabinoid receptors. Disturbing the delicate balance of the ECS due to marijuana use can negatively impact reproductive potential. Various in vivo and in vitro studies have reported on the empirical role that marijuana plays in disrupting the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis, spermatogenesis, and sperm function such as motility, capacitation, and the acrosome reaction. In this review, we highlight the latest evidence regarding the effect of marijuana use on male fertility and also provide a detailed insight into the ECS and its significance in the male reproductive system.
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14
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Gan EH, Pattman S, H S Pearce S, Quinton R. A UK epidemic of testosterone prescribing, 2001-2010. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013; 79:564-70. [PMID: 23480258 DOI: 10.1111/cen.12178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Revised: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Testosterone replacement therapy is the standard treatment for male hypogonadism. There has lately been increased marketing in the medical media promoting testosterone replacement for men with erectile dysfunction or for older men with low serum testosterone, despite the lack of long-term safety and efficacy data. Therefore, we aimed to examine trends in testosterone prescribing in UK primary care over the last 10 years. METHODS Data about the use of testosterone preparations from the Departments of Health Prescription Cost Analysis for community pharmacies 2001-2010, for England, Scotland and Wales, were collated. Community requests for serum total testosterone assay in men to the Biochemistry Department at the Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals Trust were also examined over the same time period. RESULTS The number of prescriptions for testosterone preparations increased by nearly 90% from 157 602 to 298 134 dispensed items annually, over a 10-year period. However, due to a particularly significant (fivefold) increase in prescribing of (more expensive) transdermal preparations, the cost to the NHS showed a 267% escalation, from £3·2 to £11·7 million, annually over the same period. Local requests from primary care in the Newcastle and North Tyneside area for serum testosterone measurement in men also increased, from 347 requests in 2000 to 823 requests in 2010, a 137% increase. However, the number of men with likely unequivocal hypogonadism (testosterone less than 6·0 nm) remained constant at 5·2% in 2000 and 6·3% in 2010. CONCLUSION Many men in the UK might be receiving testosterone replacement therapy with neither clearly established indications nor robustly diagnosed hypogonadism. A national registry for men treated with testosterone and further evidence to improve current guidance (national and/or international) on the indications for testosterone replacement would be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Earn H Gan
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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15
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MARGOLIS ROBERT, POPKIN NANCY. Marijuana: A Review of Medical Research With Implications for Adolescents. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/j.2164-4918.1980.tb00475.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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16
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Westin AA, Slørdal L. [Passive inhalation of cannabis smoke--is it detectable?]. TIDSSKRIFT FOR DEN NORSKE LEGEFORENING 2009; 129:109-13. [PMID: 19151803 DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.09.33889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is frequently questioned whether cannabinoids are detectable in urine from individuals having been passively exposed to hashish or marihuana smoke. Literature was reviewed to shed light on an issue that is often debated in the health services, judicial system and in sports. METHOD A Medline search with the index terms "cannabis", "hashish", "marihuana" was conducted in September 2007. Summaries, abstracts and reference lists of selected articles were screened for relevancy. RESULTS Seven experimental studies with humans were identified. Cannabinoids were detected in urine in two studies where the subjects had been exposed to high smoke levels. In studies conducted under less extreme conditions no urine samples were positive for more than a few hours after exposure and the measured cannabinoid levels were low. INTERPRETATION When cannabinoids are detected in urine with conventional methods and limits of quantification the results are commensurate with active smoking.
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17
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Sun X, Wang H, Okabe M, Mackie K, Kingsley PJ, Marnett LJ, Cravatt BF, Dey SK. Genetic loss of Faah compromises male fertility in mice. Biol Reprod 2008; 80:235-42. [PMID: 18987328 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.108.072736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug. Although there is some indication that reproductive functions in males are impaired in chronic marijuana users, the genetic evidence and underlying causes remain largely unknown. Herein we show that genetic loss of Faah, which encodes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), results in elevated levels of anandamide, an endocannabinoid, in the male reproductive system, leading to compromised fertilizing capacity of sperm. This defect is rescued by superimposing deletion of cannabinoid receptor 1 (Cnr1). Retention of Faah(-/-) sperm on the egg zona pellucida provides evidence that the capacity of sperm to penetrate the zona barrier is hampered by elevated anandamide levels. Collectively, the results show that aberrant endocannabinoid signaling via CNR1 impairs normal sperm function. Besides unveiling a new regulatory mechanism of sperm function, this study has clinical significance in male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
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18
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19
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Maccarrone M. CB2 receptors in reproduction. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 153:189-98. [PMID: 17828289 PMCID: PMC2219526 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2007] [Revised: 07/10/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids have been always identified as harmful drugs because of their negative effects on male and female reproduction. The discovery of the 'endocannabinoid system (ECS)', composed of bioactive lipids (endocannabinoids), their receptors and their metabolic enzymes, and the generation of mouse models missing cannabinoid receptors or other elements of the ECS, has enabled a wealth of information on the significance of endocannabinoid signalling in multiple reproductive events: Sertoli cell survival, spermatogenesis, placentation, fertilization, preimplantation embryo development, implantation and postimplantation embryonic growth. These studies have also opened new perspectives in clinical applications, pointing to the ECS as a new target for correcting infertility and for improving reproductive health in humans. This review will focus on the involvement of type-2 cannabinoid (CB2) receptors in reproductive biology, covering both the male and female sides. It will also discuss the potential relevance of the immunological activity of CB2 at the maternal/foetal interface, as well as the distinctiveness of CB2 versus type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptors that might be exploited for a receptor subtype-specific regulation of fertility. In this context, the different signalling pathways triggered by CB1 and CB2 (especially those controlling the intracellular tone of nitric oxide), the different activation of CB1 and CB2 by endogenous agonists (like anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol) and the different localization of CB1 and CB2 within membrane subdomains, termed 'lipid rafts', will be discussed. It is hoped that CB2-dependent endocannabinoid signalling might become a useful target for correcting infertility, in both men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Maccarrone
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.
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20
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Funahashi T, Ikeuchi H, Yamaori S, Kimura T, Yamamoto I, Watanabe K. In Vitro Inhibitory Effects of Cannabinoids on Progesterone 17.ALPHA.-Hydroxylase Activity in Rat Testis Microsomes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.51.369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Funahashi
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Hideharu Ikeuchi
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Satoshi Yamaori
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Toshiyuki Kimura
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Ikuo Yamamoto
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University of Health and Welfare
| | - Kazuhito Watanabe
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
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21
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Abstract
In the 35 years since the active compound of marijuana, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, was isolated, the psychological and physiological impact of marijuana use has been actively investigated. Animal models have demonstrated that cannabinoid administration acutely alters multiple hormonal systems, including the suppression of the gonadal steroids, growth hormone, prolactin, and thyroid hormone and the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. These effects are mediated by binding to the endogenous cannabinoid receptor in or near the hypothalamus. Despite these findings in animals, the effects in humans have been inconsistent, and discrepancies are likely due in part to the development of tolerance. The long-term consequences of marijuana use in humans on endocrine systems remain unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd T Brown
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA
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22
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Nahas GG, Frick HC, Lattimer JK, Latour C, Harvey D. Pharmacokinetics of THC in brain and testis, male gametotoxicity and premature apoptosis of spermatozoa. Hum Psychopharmacol 2002; 17:103-13. [PMID: 12404700 DOI: 10.1002/hup.369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
An earlier report described the pharmacokinetics of delta-9 THC and the resulting brain function responses. In the present studies the pharmacokinetics of THC in plasma, brain and testis were related to impairment of spermatogenesis. THC- containing preparations, whatever their route of administration, were associated with the induction of gametotoxicity in all species studied including man. The pharmacokinetics and molecular binding of THC is similar in all experimental models. Concentrations of THC in plasma, fat, testis, brain and spleen were measured following administration of tracer amounts of C(14) delta-8 THC labelled at the C(11) position. Rats were administered 2 microCi of the tracer by i.m. injection, and killed at regular intervals after a single or multiple dose of the label. After a single dose, the maximal radioactivity was reached in brain after 2 and 4 h and amounted to 0.06% of the administered dose. In the testis, the concentration did not exceed 0.023% of the administered dose. In epididymal fat, the total radioactivity after 4 h was five times higher than in the brain and after 24 h it was eight times greater. After multiple injections of C(14) THC, concentrations of the drug remained low in the plasma, brain and testis not exceeding 2-7 ng/g, but the epididymal fat tracer concentration was 40-80 times higher. Plasma concentrations of C(14) THC were of the same magnitude as those measured by GCMS in the plasma of men exposed to marihuana smoke or THC, and in whom alterations of spermatogenesis were observed. In these studies, plasma THC ranged from 9.5x10(12) M to 2.4x10(14) M. These data illustrate the efficiency of the blood-brain barrier and blood-testicular barrier in limiting the storage of THC into brain and testis. During chronic exposure to THC the pharmacokinetic molecular mechanisms which limit the storage of THC in the brain and testis are not sufficient to prevent a persistent deregulation of membrane signalling and the induction of functional and morphological changes which reflect a premature apoptosis of spermatogenic cells. Long term, longitudinal epidemiological studies have reported decreased spermatogenesis in healthy, fertile adult males. But no study has been initiated to relate the oligospermia of this population to the consumption of widely used psychoactive drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel G Nahas
- Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Department of Anesthesiology, Obstetrics and Urology, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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23
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Abstract
This review catalogues the long-term health effects of parental recreational drug abuse on the fetus and the subsequent well-being of the child. It is hard to conceive that parents would knowingly harm the health of their children, yet toxic effects resulting from ignorance, addiction or any of a number of socioeconomic factors are still responsible for handicapping countless potentially healthy offspring. The negative effects of female recreational drug and alcohol abuse during pregnancy are well documented, but exposure prior to conception and male-mediated effects are less well publicized. Abnormalities in the sperm are prevalent among men who consume recreational drugs, and birth defects are more often linked with paternal than with maternal DNA damage. This review is divided into three parts. Part I describes the biology and potential mechanisms of adverse alterations in reproductive potential, Part II explores the socioeconomic determinants of substance use, and raises the question of poverty. Drug-induced disability is not evenly distributed among the population as there are ethnic and socioeconomic disparities of infant mortality, childhood morbidity and reproductive dysfunction. Part III describes the author's conclusion that fundamental social change is needed to protect future children without threatening parents' basic freedom, and real change requires new beliefs and prioritics that must evolve from the ground up. An ecological model of care concentrating on health issues is described. Such an ecological model of care is in tune with the fundamental principles of bioscience ethics and emphasises that high quality education, health and good preconceptional/prenatal care are essentials in the search for greater equity in standard of living across a population.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Pollard
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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24
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Schuel H, Berkery D, Schuel R, Chang MC, Zimmerman AM, Zimmerman S. Reduction of the fertilizing capacity of sea urchin sperm by cannabinoids derived from marihuana. I. Inhibition of the acrosome reaction induced by egg jelly. Mol Reprod Dev 1991; 29:51-9. [PMID: 1647172 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.1080290109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and two other major cannabinoids derived from marihuana--cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN)--inhibit fertilization in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus by reducing the fertilizing capacity of sperm (Schuel et al., 1987). Sperm fertility depends on their motility and on their ability to undergo the acrosome reaction upon encountering the egg's jelly coat. Pretreatment of S. purpuratus sperm with THC prevents triggering of the acrosome reaction by solubilized egg jelly in a dose (0.1-100 microM) and time (0-5 min)-dependent manner. Induction of the acrosome reaction is inhibited in 88.9 +/- 2.3% of sperm pretreated with 100 microM THC for 5 min, while motility of THC-treated sperm is not reduced compared to solvent (vehicle) and seawater-treated controls. The acrosome reaction is inhibited 50% by pretreatment with 6.6 microM THC for 5 min and with 100 microM THC after 20.8 sec. CBN and CBD at comparable concentrations inhibit the acrosome reaction by egg jelly in a manner similar to THC. THC does not inhibit the acrosome reaction artificially induced by ionomycin, which promotes Ca2+ influx, and nigericin, which promotes K+ efflux. THC partially inhibits (20-30%) the acrosome reaction induced by A23187, which promotes Ca2+ influx, and NH4OH, which raises the internal pH of the sperm. Addition of monensin, which promotes Na+ influx to egg jelly or to A23187, does not overcome the THC inhibition. Inhibition of the egg jelly-induced acrosome reaction by THC produces a corresponding reduction in the fertilizing capacity of the sperm. The adverse effects of THC on the acrosome reaction and sperm fertility are reversible.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- H Schuel
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, SUNY 14214
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25
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Patra PB, Wadsworth RM. Quantitative evaluation of spermatogenesis in mice following chronic exposure to cannabinoids. Andrologia 1991; 23:151-6. [PMID: 1659250 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0272.1991.tb02520.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In mice, chronic administration of crude marihuana extract (CME), delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) (50 mg kg-1 body weight for 15 and 35 days) impaired spermatogenesis at both mitotic and meiotic stages. Although the total number of step 7 spermatids was unaltered, mature spermatozoa recovered from the cauda epididymidis showed severe abnormalities in morphology. Body weight and sex organ weights were not affected markedly but the adrenal gland was hypertrophied. Leydig cell nuclear area was increased by CME and CBD and reduced by CBN. Cannabis deranges several stages of the spermatogenic cycle, most of the activity of the crude extract being attributable to CBN and CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- P B Patra
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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26
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Dalterio SL, deRooij DG. Maternal cannabinoid exposure. Effects on spermatogenesis in male offspring. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ANDROLOGY 1986; 9:250-8. [PMID: 3026968 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2605.1986.tb00888.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Maternal exposure to cannabinoids influenced spermatogenesis and fertility in their male offspring examined at 60-80 days of age. Approximately 20% less spermatozoa were found in males whose mothers had received either the non-psychoactive cannabinol (CBN) or cannabidiol (CBD) on day 1 postpartum. Males exposed to the major psychoactive component of marihuana, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) appeared to have spermatozoa in number comparable to controls. This finding may be consistent with the additional observation that CBN or CBD, but not THC, reduced the percentage of successful impregnations by cannabinoid-exposed males. However, males exposed to each of these cannabinoids produced significantly less live offspring compared to controls. Plasma levels of testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) were reduced significantly in mice exposed to THC on day 12 of gestation, while testicular weight was reduced in adult mice exposed either on day 12 of gestation to CBD or on day 1 post-partum to THC. These results indicate that perinatal exposure to psychoactive and non-psychoactive components of marihuana can produce long-term disruption of testicular function including the spermatogenic as well as the steroidogenic components.
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27
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Holmes SD, Lipshultz LI, Smith RG. Effect of cannabinoids on human Sertoli cell function in vitro. ARCHIVES OF ANDROLOGY 1983; 11:245-51. [PMID: 6140904 DOI: 10.3109/01485018308987489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to marijuana adversely affects spermatogenesis in humans and rodents. Since the Sertoli cell interfaces between changes in the serum hormonal milieu and the adluminal compartment and acts in various ways to support the germinal epithelium, this adverse marijuana mediated effect might be transmitted locally in the testes of humans by interference with Sertoli cell function. This report describes the effect of three active marijuana components: delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CD) and cannabinol (CN) on various human Sertoli cell markers: transferrin, protein secretion and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase activity utilizing cultured human Sertoli cells. THC, CD, and CN tested in concentrations up to 200 ng/ml did not change transferrin secretion by these human Sertoli cells. Transferrin represents 1-4% of the total newly synthesized proteins of human Sertoli cells in culture. Even when the Sertoli cells were incubated for 30 days with THC there was no effect on transferrin secretion. The presence or absence of follicle-stimulating hormone, testosterone (T) or Fe3+ in the culture media did not modify the effect of THC. THC, CD, and CN also did not alter total protein secretion by Sertoli cells nor affect the level of gamma glutamyl transpeptidase activity.
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28
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Nicholi AM. The college student and marijuana: research findings concerning adverse biological and psychological effects. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH : J OF ACH 1983; 32:73-77. [PMID: 6319465 DOI: 10.1080/07448481.1983.9936145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
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29
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Takahashi W, Wong L, Rogers BJ, Hale RW. Depression of sperm counts among agricultural workers exposed to dibromochloropropane and ethylene dibromide. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 1981; 27:551-558. [PMID: 7030435 DOI: 10.1007/bf01611063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
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Clark WC, Janal MN, Zeidenberg P, Nahas GG. Effects of moderate and high doses of marihuana on thermal pain: a sensory decision theory analysis. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21:299S-310S. [PMID: 7298871 DOI: 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1981.tb02608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Sixteen habitual marihuana users, selected for their good mental and physical health, were hospitalized for three months in the New York State Psychiatric Institute. During the first month, the subjects were drug free; during the second month, they smoked marihuana cigarettes provided by NIDA (2% THC, 20 mg per cigarette) at the rate of 3 to 12 a day. A modified Hardy-Wolff dolorimeter was used to present 20 thermal stimuli of 30-second duration in a random manner at nine different intensities. Subjects responded from a 14-category scale, and data were analyzed according to sensory decision theory analysis. During the third month, the subjects were again drug free. At the noxious thermal intensities, there was a decrease in the pain report criterion during the first two weeks of smoking. The pain enhancement effect was followed by return to the presmoking pain level during weeks 3 and 4 and in the postsmoking period, indicating that tolerance had developed. There was also an increase in pain discriminability during the four weeks of smoking which extended for one week after smoking. Tolerance developed to the pain report criterion but not to the thermal discriminability. This study suggests that marihuana may have hyperalgesic activity and probably enhances the perception of pain, in moderate smokers. In contrast, heavy smoking had little effect on discriminability and caused an increase in the pain report criterion.
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Nahas G, Leger C, Tocque B, Hoellinger H. The kinetics of cannabinoid distribution and storage with special reference to the brain and testis. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21:208S-214S. [PMID: 6271826 DOI: 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1981.tb02597.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Male and female rats were given either single or repeated intramuscular injections of 2 microCi of 14C-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol. They were sacrificed by groups of three at regular intervals 2, 3, 4, 6, or 24 hours after the last injection. Samples of blood lung, brain and pituitary, spleen, liver, fat, testis, and ovary were removed. Some samples were pyrolysed in an automatic oxygen train system to measure 14C-CO2, which reflects total cannabinoid concentration; other samples were kept for measurements of individual cannabinoids after extraction. After a single administration of 14C-delta 8-THC, maximal concentration of total radioactivity was reached in the brain between 2 and 4 hours amounting to 6 ng/gm tissue, or 0.06 per cent of the administered dose. After two weeks of chronic administration, concentrations of radioactivity progressively increased in liver and neutral fat, while cannabinoid levels in brain and testis remained unchanged. These data illustrate the efficiency of the blood-brain and blood-testicular barrier in limiting the access and accumulation of cannabinoids in these tissues.
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Clark WC, Goetz RR, McCarthy RH, Bemporad B, Zeidenberg P. Effects of marihuana on pain and verbal memory: a sensory decision theory analysis. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:665-80. [PMID: 756851 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50055-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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