The influence of driver distraction on the severity of injuries sustained by teenage drivers and their passengers

The effects of the traffic signs information volume on the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers

BACKGROUND

The effects of traffic sign information volume (TSIV) on the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers were investigated in this study. TSIV plays a crucial role in road traffic safety, and understanding its impact on drivers is essential for designing effective traffic sign systems.

OBJECTIVE

This research aimed to compare the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers under varying TSIV doses through simulated driving tests. The objective was to provide insights for optimizing the design of road TSIV.

METHODS

Six TSIV levels were considered: S0, S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5, representing different workload levels. Participants, including both novice and experienced drivers, were involved in simulated driving scenarios with varying TSIV levels. Eye movement data was collected using an eye tracker device. The study was conducted in China, and appropriate driving simulators and equipment were utilized.

RESULTS

The findings revealed several valuable results. Experienced drivers exhibited a higher proportion of saccade behavior in the 30-90 ms time period and did not show rapid saccade behavior during the 0-30 ms period, indicating superior visual search strategies. Both novice and experienced drivers demonstrated improved visual cognitive abilities at the S3 level of TSIV, which corresponds to normal and safe driving conditions. Furthermore, a majority of both groups had saccade amplitudes in the range of 0°-4°, with experienced drivers showing a slightly higher proportion. About 82% of experienced drivers had saccade behavior within the range of 0°-2°, compared to 75% of novice drivers.

CONCLUSIONS

The study concludes that the S3 level of TSIV, corresponding to 30 bits/km, is optimal for both novice and experienced drivers. This level promotes better visual performance and reduces visual workload, indicating that drivers' information acquisition capacity and visual search strategies are maximized while keeping the workload associated with driving at a minimum. These findings have significant implications for enhancing driving safety.

Behind the Wheel: Unraveling the Impact of Experience Over Age Over the First 18 Months of Licensure

OBJECTIVE

This study examined how driving attention develops with age and driving.

METHODS

In this observational longitudinal study, 190 adolescents (53% female, 73% Black) were enrolled across four groups: 16- and 18-year olds with and without driving experience. They underwent driving simulation with eye-tracking technology seven times over 18 months. By using a combination of factorial and longitudinal designs, the study examined the individual and combined effects of age and driving experience on driving attention over time.

RESULTS

Licensed participants had higher odds of glancing at safety-critical events initially (OR = 15.01, 95% CI: 1.36-165.53), but these odds decreased at higher driving speeds (b = -0.17, p<.01). Average glance length decreased over time (b = -0.26, p=.01), but less so in licensed participants (b=0.14, p=.01). Several visual behaviors were influenced by environmental and driving factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are burdensome and costly to society. This study focused on the role of inattention in MVCs, particularly during the risky period of adolescence. Findings indicated that driving experience, as determined by licensure, had a considerable impact on visual behavior in both the short term (within two weeks of obtaining a license) and over the first 18 months of independent driving. Overall, these findings suggest that licensed adolescents are more likely to identify potential hazards on the road and navigate safely. To ensure effective guidance, pediatric psychologists and other professionals should consider the unique circumstances, needs, and concerns of individual patients.

Looking out or Looking Away?-Exploring the Impact of Driving With a Passenger on Young Drivers' Eye Glance Behavior

OBJECTIVE

To explore how passenger presence and the degree of association between young driver and passenger influences young drivers' eye glance behavior when they are subjected to distraction.

BACKGROUND

Young drivers (18-20 years old) are at an elevated crash risk when subjected to distraction. They are likely to be distracted even further when they drive with passengers. However, the eye glance behavior of these drivers when driving with passengers has not been explored.

METHOD

Eye glance data of 34 young drivers between the ages of 18 and 20 years were collected. Participants drove with and without a passenger while subjected to three distracting tasks (visual-manual, cognitive, or visual-cognitive) and driving scenarios that required driver attention.

RESULTS

Visual-cognitive as well as visual-manual states of distraction result in higher mean and standard deviation of glance duration, along with higher number of glances away from road. Passenger presence is found to negatively influence young drivers' eye glance behavior. The degree of association between the young driver and the passenger may help reduce the deviation of eye glances towards the task-related objects.

CONCLUSION

In addition to distraction, passengers have a negative influence on the eye glance behavior of young drivers. However, a high degree of association between driver and passenger may mitigate the negative impact of distraction on the eye glance behavior of young drivers.

APPLICATION (NON-THEORETICAL WORKS)

This research may aid in the design of interventions that improve young drivers' eye glance behavior when they drive with their peers.

Group trust dynamics during a risky driving experience in a Tesla Model X

The growing concern about the risk and safety of autonomous vehicles (AVs) has made it vital to understand driver trust and behavior when operating AVs. While research has uncovered human factors and design issues based on individual driver performance, there remains a lack of insight into how trust in automation evolves in groups of people who face risk and uncertainty while traveling in AVs. To this end, we conducted a naturalistic experiment with groups of participants who were encouraged to engage in conversation while riding a Tesla Model X on campus roads. Our methodology was uniquely suited to uncover these issues through naturalistic interaction by groups in the face of a risky driving context. Conversations were analyzed, revealing several themes pertaining to trust in automation: (1) collective risk perception, (2) experimenting with automation, (3) group sense-making, (4) human-automation interaction issues, and (5) benefits of automation. Our findings highlight the untested and experimental nature of AVs and confirm serious concerns about the safety and readiness of this technology for on-road use. The process of determining appropriate trust and reliance in AVs will therefore be essential for drivers and passengers to ensure the safe use of this experimental and continuously changing technology. Revealing insights into social group-vehicle interaction, our results speak to the potential dangers and ethical challenges with AVs as well as provide theoretical insights on group trust processes with advanced technology.

A temporal analysis of crash injury severities in multivehicle crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving on tollways

Distracted driving is a prominent cause of traffic crashes and may increase the severity of collisions. Due to the larger speeds on toll ways, distracted driving crashes are more severe than on other types of roads, making it worthwhile to investigate. This study examined the variation in the influence of factors affecting injury severity in crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving, as well as the change over time, using crash data from Florida toll ways from the 2017 to 2019. A series of random parameters logit models with heterogeneity in the means and variances were developed to analyze different driver-injury severities (no injury, minor injury, and severe injury) in crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving. In addition, likelihood ratio tests were conducted to determine whether model parameters differed between different driver behaviors (distracted/non-distracted driving) and among years. Several factors potentially impacting injury severities were studied, including driver, crash, vehicle, roadway, environment, temporal, and others. Significant disparities were observed between the contributing factors of the severity of crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving. Results showed that considerable differences were also observed in the severity of injuries caused by two types of crashes and distracted driving resulted in more serious crashes than non-distracted driving. Despite model results indicated that factors influencing injury severity altered over time, several factors, such as motorcycle involvement and commercial car involvement, still exhibited relative temporal stability in non-distracted driving crashes over the three years. Temporal instability and non-transferability were also captured by out-of-sample predictions to verify the temporal shifts of contributing variables from year to year. This study is useful for distinguishing the influence mechanisms between the two types of crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving, and the results can be applied for safety countermeasures development.

Exploring the effects of road type on drivers' eye behavior and workload

The number of traffic accidents is increasing every year. This study researched the effect of road type on driver's workload and eye behavior. The results showed that the road type has an effect on workload, pupil diameter, fixation rate and number of fixations. The workload, pupil diameter, fixation rate and number of fixations have a positive correlation with the complexity of road conditions. The research on visual attention area found that the driver's attention area during driving includes the rear-view mirror, left mirror, right mirror and middle area of the interface. In addition, the search range in the horizontal direction is largest under the urban road condition. Drivers focus on the ahead situation in the expressway condition, and the driver focuses on the opposite and front road in the rural road condition. The research results can be used for drivers' training in the future.

Young drivers and smartphone use: The impact of legal and non-legal deterrents

INTRODUCTION

Young drivers continue to be overrepresented in road crash statistics and smartphone use has been identified as a dangerous form of driver distraction. Previous research has identified factors encouraging drivers to use their mobile phone, with few examining what deters drivers. This study examines the influence of legal and non-legal deterrents on smartphone use while driving (SWD) in a young adult sample.

METHOD

An online survey was administered to a sample of 524 Australian drivers aged 17-25 years. Measures included demographic variables, legal deterrents (certainty, severity, and swiftness), and non-legal deterrents: social loss (peers and parents), internal loss (anticipated regret) and physical loss (injury to self/others). Self-reported SWD was the outcome variable, measured separately for initiating SWD and responding SWD behaviors.

RESULTS

Responding behaviors were reported more frequently than initiating, and social, internal, and physical loss were perceived as higher for initiating versus responding behaviors. Anticipated action regret and physical loss were significant negative predictors of SWD across both modalities of communication. Anticipated inaction regret was also a significant positive predictor of initiating behaviors. Both legal deterrents and social loss were non-significant predictors for both modalities of SWD.

CONCLUSIONS

The results reinforce previous evidence showing that legal deterrence variables are not consistently effective at reducing offending behaviors. Future research should continue to explore the effect of non-legal deterrents across different modalities of SWD.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Road safety interventions aimed at young drivers should evaluate the impact of highlighting anticipated regret and potential injury to self and others associated with risky driving behaviors, such as SWD.

Distracted Driving Among Patients with Trauma Attending Fracture Clinics in Canada: The Canadian Multicenter DRIVSAFE Study

BACKGROUND

Globally, every 25 seconds, a person dies in a motor vehicle crash (MVC) and 58 people get injured. Adding to the rising distracted-driving rates is the rapid growth of the number of cars in circulation globally. This study examined the proportion of distracted drivers among patients attending orthopaedic fracture clinics, as well as associated factors.

METHODS

In this large, multicenter, cross-sectional study, we recruited 1,378 patients across 4 Canadian fracture clinics. Eligible patients completed an anonymous questionnaire about distracted driving. We calculated the percentages of specific distractions. Using questionnaire responses and published crash risk odds ratios (ORs), patients were grouped as distraction-prone and distraction-averse. Regression analyses to determine the association of demographic characteristics with distracting behaviors and the odds of being in a distraction-related crash were performed.

RESULTS

In total, 1,358 patients (99.7%) self-reported distracted driving. Prevalent distractions included talking to passengers (98.7%), distractions outside the vehicle (95.5%), listening to the radio (97.6%), adjusting the radio (93.8%), and daydreaming (61.2%). Of the 1,354 patients who acknowledged mobile phone distractions, 889 (65.7%) accepted phone calls and continued driving, 675 (49.8%) read electronic messages, and 475 (35.1%) sent electronic messages. Younger age (OR, 0.94 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.91 to 0.97]; p < 0.001) and household incomes of $80,000 to <$100,000 (OR, 1.92 [95% CI, 1.17 to 3.14]; p = 0.01) and ≥$100,000 (OR, 2.48 [95% CI, 1.57 to 3.91]; p < 0.001) were associated with being in the distraction-prone group. Distraction-prone patients were twice as likely to be in a distraction-related MVC (OR, 1.98 [95% CI, 1.43 to 2.74]; p < 0.001). Of 113 drivers who sustained injuries from MVCs, 20 (17.7%) acknowledged being distracted. Of 729 patients who reported being the driver in a previous MVC in their lifetime, 226 (31.0%) confirmed being distracted.

CONCLUSIONS

This survey-based study showed that driving distractions were near universally acknowledged. The pervasiveness of distractions held true even when only the more dangerous distractions were considered. One in 6 patients in MVCs reported being distracted in their current crash, and 1 in 3 patients disclosed being distracted in an MVC during their lifetime.

Temporal analysis of cellphone-use-involved crash injury severities: Calling for preventing cellphone-use-involved distracted driving

With the popularity of smartphones and the increasing dependence on cellphones, cellphone-use-involved distracted driving has become a global traffic safety concern. Calling, texting, or watching videos while driving could have harmful impacts on driving abilities and increase crash-injury severities. To investigate the temporal stability and the heterogeneity of cellphone-involved crash injury severity determinants, a series of likelihood ratio tests and random parameters logit models with heterogeneity in means and variances are estimated. Cellphone-involved single-vehicle crash datasets of Pennsylvania from 2004 to 2019 are utilized. Marginal effects are also applied to investigate the impact of explanatory variables on injury severity outcomes. The results indicate an overall temporal instability of cellphone-involved crashes across different periods. However, driving without seatbelts and overturns are observed to produce relatively stable and positive influence on the increased injury severities of cellphone-involved crashes. Besides, it is noteworthy that a combination of cellphone usage with risky driving behaviors (aggressive driving, alcohol- or drug-related driving, speeding, or fatigue driving) significantly increase driver injury-severities. This finding highlights the necessity of identifying drivers with multiple risk-taking behaviors and enacting laws to prohibit these drivers from using cellphones while driving. Applications of smartphones provide another feasible approach to prevent using cellphones while driving. Insights and suggestions of this study would be valuable to mitigate the negative outcomes of cellphone-involved crashes and prevent the crashes caused by cellphone-involved distracted driving in the future.

Exploring the impacts of built environment on pedestrian injury severity involving distracted driving

INTRODUCTION

This study develops an injury severity model that demonstrates level of pedestrians' injury severity during pedestrian-vehicle collisions, specifically those involving distracted driving.

METHOD

It uses data from a police-reported collision database that contains pedestrian-vehicle collision information in Nova Scotia, Canada. A latent segmentation-based ordered logit (LSOL) model is developed in this paper that comprehensively examines the influence of built environment characteristics on pedestrian injury severity. It estimates a latent segment allocation model within LSOL modeling framework to capture unobserved heterogeneity across pedestrians. Two latent segments, high- and low-risk segments, are identified probabilistically based on pedestrian characteristics and action, driver action, and collision attributes.

RESULTS

Results suggest that higher mixed land-use, transit stop density, length of sidewalk in the collision locations, and collisions occurring near schools yield lower pedestrian injury severity. In contrast, pedestrian-vehicle collisions in arterial roads, curved roads, sloped roads, and roundabouts tend to result in severe injuries. Interactions between distracted driving type and built environment characteristics are examined in this study. For example, using a communication device while driving on straight roads increases likelihood of higher pedestrian injury severity. This study also confirms the existence of heterogeneity across latent segments. For instance, higher percentage of people commuting by walking in the collision areas yield severe pedestrian injury in high-risk segments and lower injury severity in low-risk segments. Practical applications: The findings of this study will assist transportation planners and road safety stakeholders in developing effective and prioritized policies to reduce pedestrian injury severity involving distracted driving incidents.

Understanding Traffic Accidents among Young Drivers in Qatar

Young drivers are generally associated with risky driving behaviors that can lead to crash involvement. Many self-report measurement scales are used to assess such risky behaviors. This study is aimed to understand the risky driving behaviors of young adults in Qatar and how such behaviors are associated with crash involvement. This was achieved through the usage of validated self-report measurement scales adopted for the Arabic context. A nationwide cross-sectional and exploratory study was conducted in Qatar from January to April 2021. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the survey was conducted online. Therefore, respondents were selected conveniently. Hence, the study adopted a non-probability sampling method in which convenience and snowball sampling were used. A total of 253 completed questionnaires were received, of which 57.3% were female, and 42.7% were male. Approximately 55.8% of these young drivers were involved in traffic accidents after obtaining their driving license. On average, most young drivers do have some risky driving behavior accompanied by a low tendency to violate traffic laws, and their driving style is not significantly controlled by their personality on the road. The older young drivers are more involved in traffic accidents than the younger drivers, i.e., around 1.5 times more likely. Moreover, a young male driver is 3.2 times less likely to be involved in traffic accidents than a female driver. In addition, males are only 0.309 times as likely as females to be involved in an accident and have approximately a 70% lower likelihood of having an accident versus females. The analysis is complemented with the association between young drivers' demographic background and psychosocial-behavioral parameters (linking risky driving behavior, personality, and obligation effects on crash involvement). Some interventions are required to improve driving behavior, such as driving apps that are able to monitor and provide corrective feedback.

Design and evaluation of a rural intersection conflict warning system and alternative designs among various driver age groups

Advanced Rural Intersection Conflict Warning Systems (RICWS) were deployed as countermeasures to reduce severe right-angle crashes at rural thru-STOP controlled intersections across the United States (U.S.). The simulator study designed and evaluated alternative RICWS designs to existing RICWS interventions, in varying rural driving scenarios, across age groups (N = 40 novice teenage, 40 middle-aged, and 40 older drivers). Each participant was randomly assigned to a RICWS design, either the original or an alternative, and drove through sequences of 17 thru-STOP controlled rural intersections (nine RICWS intervention and eight control intersections). Drivers' gap acceptance performance, intersection driving performance, traffic violation behaviors and self-reported workload were evaluated between intervention and control intersections. Regression models, applying the Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE), enabled efficacy determination of each RICWS design and an aggregated RICWS intervention effect, averaged across all simulated RICWS designs, among different levels of moderating factors. The safety performance and possible risks associated with the use of different RICWS designs were identified. Specifically, the original RICWS design had a significantly greater risk of STOP-sign violations at clear-view intersections with low traffic volumes, compared with control intersections (Risk Ratio = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.03 to 4.64). Except for Alternative RICWS Design 1, the alternative RICWS designs did not appear to outperform the Original RICWS Design. The moderating effects of drivers' ages and intersection types on aggregated RICWS intervention effects were also examined. This study provides important safety implications for development and evaluation of intelligent intersection warning systems, targeted to vulnerable driver populations at high-risk rural intersections.

The Impact of an Educational Intervention on Distracted Driving Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors Among College Students

Distracted driving indiscriminately kills nearly 3500 people each year with young adults having greater risks associated with this phenomenon. Prevention programs targeting the distracted driving habits of young adults are necessary to ameliorate the high costs, both in dollars and in lives, associated with this behavior. Few health education and prevention programs have been assessed for their effectiveness in changing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to distracted driving. This study explores a distracted driving intervention among undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory public health course. A quasi-experimental study design was used to compare the pre- and post-data of the group receiving 5-weeks of a distracted driving intervention to a control group. Questionnaires were administered to both groups prior to and 2 weeks following the intervention to assess changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to distracted driving. A Difference-in-Difference technique showed significant changes in knowledge (β = 0.40, p = 0.03) and total scores (β = 2.48, p = 0.04) in the intervention (n = 97) compared to the control (n = 131). T-tests examining pre- and post-scores for individual behaviors showed the intervention group displayed positive changes for some behaviors (talking, texting, cellphone use, grooming) compared to the control. The results support the impact that a classroom-based distracted driving intervention can have on undergraduate college students. Implications for this type of health education program may lead to improvements in distracted driving attitudes and behavior among this age-group.

Identifying Interactive Factors That May Increase Crash Risk between Young Drivers and Trucks: A Narrative Review

Sharing the road with trucks is associated with increased risk of serious injury and death for passenger vehicle drivers. However, the onus for minimising risk lies not just with truck drivers; other drivers must understand the unique performance limitations of trucks associated with stopping distances, blind spots, and turning manoeuverability, so they can suitably act and react around trucks. Given the paucity of research aimed at understanding the specific crash risk vulnerability of young drivers around trucks, the authors employ a narrative review methodology that brings together evidence from both truck and young driver road safety research domains, as well as data regarding known crash risks for each driving cohort, to gain a comprehensive understanding of what young drivers are likely to know about heavy vehicle performance limitations, where there may be gaps in their understanding, and how this could potentially increase crash risk. We then review literature regarding the human factors affecting young drivers to understand how perceptual immaturity and engagement in risky driving behaviours are likely to compound risk regarding both the frequency and severity of collision between trucks and young drivers. Finally, we review current targeted educational initiatives and suggest that simply raising awareness of truck limitations is insufficient. We propose that further research is needed to ensure initiatives aimed at increasing young driver awareness of trucks and truck safety are evidence-based, undergo rigorous evaluation, and are delivered in a way that aims to (i) increase young driver risk perception skills, and (ii) reduce risky driving behaviour around trucks.

Smartwatches are more distracting than mobile phones while driving: Results from an experimental study

The use of smartwatches raises a number of questions about their potential for distraction in situations where sustained attention is paramount, like driving a motor vehicle. Our research examines distraction caused by smartwatch use in comparison to mobile phone use while driving. It also studies the difference in distractions caused by inbound text messages versus inbound voice messages, and outbound replies through text messages versus outbound voice replies. A within-subject experiment was conducted in a driving simulator where 31 participants received and answered text messages under four conditions: they received notifications (1) on a mobile phone, (2) on a smartwatch, and (3) on a speaker, and then responded orally to these messages. They also (4) received messages in a "texting" condition where they had to reply through text to the notifications. Eye tracking gaze distribution results show that participants were more distracted in the smartwatch condition than in the mobile phone condition, they were less distracted in the speaker condition than in the phone condition, and they were more distracted in the texting condition than in any of the others. The participants' driving performance remained the same in all conditions except in the texting condition, wherein it became worse. Eye tracking and pupillometry results suggest that participants' mental workload might be lower in the texting condition than in the other three conditions, although this result might be caused by a higher number of glances at the device in that condition. This study contributes to a better understanding of the distraction potential of smartwatches as well as identifying vocal assistants as the least distracting way of communicating while driving a vehicle. Industry leaders could become a key factor in informing the public of the smartwatch's potential for distraction.

Use of social media while driving from an orthopedic resident's perspective

PURPOSE

To investigate the orthopedic injuries sustained while driving and using social media on cellular phones from an orthopedic resident's perspective.

METHODS

A total of 118 patients who presented with a history of road traffic accident secondary to social media usage and suffered from fractures were included in this cross-sectional study. These patients were reported from October 2018 to April 2019. We collected the data including the type of collision, type of social media usage during driving, location of injury, wearing of safety equipment's such as helmet and seat belt during driving.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients was (34.86 ± 12.73) (range 15-71) years. The common types of accident on the basis of collision of vehicles were: car versus motorbike 45 (38.1%), motorbike versus motorbike 28 (23.7%), and motorbike versus pedestrian 22 (18.6%). Most of the accidents (61, 51.7%) occurred due to mistake of motor-bikers. Out of them, 44 (37.3%) occurred on traffic signals, followed by 29 (24.6%) while driving on main roads. The common timing of accident was normal hours with frequency of 44 (37.3%), followed by 39 (33.1%) at late night. According to fracture type, closed injuries were 98 (83.1%) and open fractures were 20 (16.9%). The most common fracture was clavicular fracture (21, 22.5%) followed by soft tissue injury in 19 (16.1%) patients. The most common social media application usage during driving was Facebook 43 (36.4%), followed by Whatsapp 24 (20.3%), Google 19 (16.1%), and Instagram 15 (12.7%).

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that social media usage while driving put the drivers and other road users' lives at high risk. The most common social media addiction while driving is Facebook and Whatsapp. So there is a need to make strict rules and penalties for using cell phone during driving so as to save the lives of drivers and other people using road.

The temporal stability of factors affecting driver injury severity in run-off-road crashes: A random parameters ordered probit model with heterogeneity in the means approach

This study presents an effort to investigate the determinants of driver injury severity in run-off-road (ROR) crashes. In order to account for unobserved heterogeneity, a random parameter ordered probit with heterogeneity in the means approach is applied. The police-reported ROR crash data that occurred from 2014 to 2017 in the state of North Carolina is used. Four injury-severity levels are defined: property damage only (PDO), possible injury (PI), non-incapacitating (N), and F/I (by merging fatal and incapacitating). The driver, crash, roadway, environmental characteristics that potentially affect the driver injury severity are explored. Besides, the temporal stability of modeling results among the four-time periods is investigated using a series of likelihood ratio tests. Significant temporal instability is found, indicating underestimating the temporal instability might result in unreliable conclusions. Estimation results demonstrate that the indicators, including male driver, alcohol, and curved roadways, increase the possibility of fatal and incapacitating injuries in the ROR crash in most of the year periods.

Research on a Cognitive Distraction Recognition Model for Intelligent Driving Systems Based on Real Vehicle Experiments

The accurate and prompt recognition of a driver’s cognitive distraction state is of great significance to intelligent driving systems (IDSs) and human-autonomous collaboration systems (HACSs). Once the driver’s distraction status has been accurately identified, the IDS or HACS can actively intervene or take control of the vehicle, thereby avoiding the safety hazards caused by distracted driving. However, few studies have considered the time–frequency characteristics of the driving behavior and vehicle status during distracted driving for the establishment of a recognition model. This study seeks to exploit a recognition model of cognitive distraction driving according to the time–frequency analysis of the characteristic parameters. Therefore, an on-road experiment was implemented to measure the relative parameters under both normal and distracted driving via a test vehicle equipped with multiple sensors. Wavelet packet analysis was used to extract the time–frequency characteristics, and 21 pivotal features were determined as the input of the training model. Finally, a bidirectional long short-term memory network (Bi-LSTM) combined with an attention mechanism (Atten-BiLSTM) was proposed and trained. The results indicate that, compared with the support vector machine (SVM) model and the long short-term memory network (LSTM) model, the proposed model achieved the highest recognition accuracy (90.64%) for cognitive distraction under the time window setting of 5 s. The determination of time–frequency characteristic parameters and the more accurate recognition of cognitive distraction driving achieved in this work provide a foundation for human-centered intelligent vehicles.

Investigating in-vehicle distracting activities and crash risks for young drivers using structural equation modeling

Distracted driving has been considered one of the main reasons for traffic crashes in recent times, especially among young drivers. The objectives of this study were to identify the distracting activities in which young drivers engage, assess the most distracting ones based on their experiences, and investigate the factors that might increase crash risk. The data were collected through a self-report questionnaire. Most participants reported frequent cell phone use while driving. Other reported activities include adjusting audio devices, chatting with passengers, smoking, eating, and drinking. A structural equation model was constructed to identify the latent variables that have a significant influence on crash risk. The analysis showed that in-vehicle distractions had a high effect on the crash likelihood. The results also indicated that dangerous driving behavior had a direct effect on the crash risk probability, as well as on the rash driving latent variables. The results provide insight into distracted driving behavior among young drivers and can be useful in developing enforcement and educational strategies to reduce this type of behavior.

Role of Passengers in Single-Vehicle Drunk-Driving Crashes: An Injury-Severity Analysis

Background: Drunk-driving is a major crash risk factor, and crashes resulting from this risky behavior tend to be serious and have significant economic and societal impacts. The presence of passengers and their demographics and activities can influence risky driving behaviors such as drunk-driving. However, passengers could either be an “enabling” factor to take more risks or could be an “inhibiting” factor by ensuring safe driving by a drunk-driver. Objective: This study examines whether the presence of passengers affects the contributing factors of single-vehicle (SV) drunk-driving crashes, by presenting a severity analysis of single- and multi-occupant SV drunk-driving crashes, to identify risk factors that contribute to crash severity outcomes, for the effective implementation of relevant countermeasures. Method: A total of 7407 observations for 2012–2016 from the crash database of the State of Alabama was used for this study. The variables were divided into six classes: temporal, locational, driver, vehicle, roadway, and crash characteristics and injury severities into three: severe, minor, and no injury. Two latent class multinomial logit models—one each for single- and multi-occupant crashes—were developed, to analyze the effects of significant factors on injury severity outcomes using marginal effects. Results: The estimated results show that collision with a ditch, run-off road, intersection, winter season, wet roadway, and interstate decreased the probability of severe injuries in both single- and multi-occupant crashes, whereas rural area, road with downward grade, dark and unlit roadway, unemployed driver, and driver with invalid license increased the likelihood of severe injuries for both single- and multi-occupant crashes. Female drivers were more likely to be severely injured in single-occupant crashes, but less likely in multi-occupant crashes. A significant association was found between severe injuries and weekends, residential areas, and crash location close (<25 mi ≈40.23 km) to the residence of the at-fault driver in multi-occupant crashes. Sport utility vehicles were found to be safer when driving with passengers. Conclusions: The model findings show that, although many correlates are consistent between the single- and multi-occupant SV crashes that are associated with locational, roadway, vehicle, temporal, and driver characteristics, their effect can vary across the single- and multi-occupant driving population. The findings from this study can help in targeting interventions, developing countermeasures, and educating passengers to reduce drunk-driving crashes and consequent injuries. Such integrated efforts combined with engineering and emergency response may contribute in developing a true safe systems approach.

Driving after pediatric traumatic brain injury: Impact of distraction and executive functioning

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the current study was to examine the driving performance of young drivers with a history of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) compared with an uninjured control group. The impact of cell phone related distraction (conversation and texting) and executive functioning (EF) were also explored.

METHOD

Individuals aged 16-25 years with (n = 19) and without (n = 19) a history of TBI engaged in a simulated drive under 3 distraction conditions (no distraction, cell phone conversation, and texting). Mean speed, maximum speed, standard deviation of speed, standard deviation of lane position, and crash rates were used as outcomes. The Global Executive Composite (GEC) from the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF) was used to measure EF.

RESULTS

Significant Injury × Distraction × GEC interaction effects were noted on max speed and speed variability, with a trending Distraction × GEC interaction noted for lane position variability. The effect of distraction was most notable among individuals with greater GEC scores, across both injury groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A history of pediatric TBI did not specifically impact driving performance independent of EF, with EF playing a central role in functioning across domains of driving performance. Consistent effect of EF suggests that deficits in driving performance may be associated with EF specifically, with individuals with EF difficulties following TBI at greater risk for poor driving performance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A novel feature extraction model for traffic injury severity and its application to Fatality Analysis Reporting System data analysis

The prevention of severe injuries during crashes has become one of the leading issues in traffic management and transportation safety. Identifying the impact factors that affect traffic injury severity is critical for reducing the occurrence of severe injuries. In this study, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System data are selected as the dataset for the analysis. An algorithm named improved Markov Blanket was proposed to extract the significant and common factors that affect crash injury severity from 29 variables related to driver characteristics, vehicle characteristics, accidents types, road condition, and environment characteristics. The Pearson correlation coefficient test is applied to verify the significant correlation between the selected factors and traffic injury severity. Two widely used classification algorithms (Bayesian networks and C4.5 decision tree) were employed to evaluate the performance of the proposed feature selection algorithm. The calculation result of the correlation coefficient, accuracy of classification, and classification error rate indicated that the improved Markov Blanket not only could extract the significant impact factors but could also improve the accuracy of classification. Meanwhile, the relationship between five selected factors (atmospheric condition, time of crash, alcohol test result, crash type, and driver's distraction) and traffic injury severity was also analyzed in this study. The results indicated that crashes occurred in bad weather condition (e.g. fog or worse), in night time, in drunk driving, in crash type of single driver, and in distracted driving, which are associated with more severe injuries.

The role of pre-crash driving instability in contributing to crash intensity using naturalistic driving data

While the cost of crashes exceeds $1 Trillion a year in the U.S. alone, the availability of high-resolution naturalistic driving data provides an opportunity for researchers to conduct an in-depth analysis of crash contributing factors, and design appropriate interventions. Although police-reported crash data provides information on crashes, this study takes advantage of the SHRP2 Naturalistic Driving Study (NDS) which is a unique dataset that allows new insights due to detailed information on driver behavior in normal, pre-crash, and near-crash situations, in addition to trip and vehicle performance characteristics. This paper investigates the role of pre-crash driving instability, or driving volatility, in crash intensity (measured on a 4-point scale from a tire-strike to an injury crash) by analyzing microscopic vehicle kinematic data. NDS data are used to investigate not only the vehicle movements in space but also the instability of vehicles prior to the crash and their contribution to crash intensity using path analysis. A subset of the data containing 617 crash events with around 0.18 million temporal trajectories are analyzed. To quantify driving instability, microscopic variations or volatility in vehicular movements before a crash are analyzed. Specifically, nine measures of pre-crash driving volatility are calculated and used to explain crash intensity. While most of the measures are significantly correlated with crash intensity, substantial positive correlations are observed for two measures representing speed and deceleration volatilities. Modeling results of the fixed and random parameter probit models revealed that volatility is one of the leading factors increasing the probability of a severe crash. Additionally, the speed prior to a crash is highly correlated with intensity outcomes, as expected. Interestingly, distracted and aggressive driving are highly correlated with driving volatility and have substantial indirect effects on crash intensity. With volatile driving serving as a leading indicator of crash intensity, given the crashes analyzed in this study, early warnings and alerts for the subject vehicle driver and proximate vehicles can be helpful when volatile behavior is observed.

"I Snapchat and Drive!" A mixed methods approach examining snapchat use while driving and deterrent perceptions among young adults

This research utilised a qualitative and quantitative study to examine a sample of young drivers' perceptions of deterrent forces, both legal and non-legal, for the behaviour of phone use while driving. First, focus groups were conducted with 60 drivers between the ages of 17 and 25 years who resided in Queensland, Australia. This qualitative study utilised an inductive approach to elicit participants' perceptions without omitting important ideas. Legal sanctions were associated with low perceptions of enforcement certainty. Meanwhile, the only non-legal sanction to emerge was the concept of "safety"; many participants were deterred from using their phone while driving for fear of injury or death to themselves or others. The types of social media most likely to be engaged in were explored and sending videos or photos via the application Snapchat emerged as the most common social media application used among the sample. Consequently, the subsequent quantitative study focused on deterrent forces associated with Snapchat use while driving. A survey was utilised with a separate sample of young drivers aged 17-25 years (n = 503). The impact of the threat of legal sanctions on Snapchat use while driving was examined through classical deterrence theory and Stafford and Warr's (1993) reconceptualised deterrence theory. The non-legal factor of perceived safety was also included in the quantitative study. None of the classical deterrence variables (e.g., certainty, severity and swiftness) reached significance while all the reconceptualised deterrence variables (e.g., direct and indirect punishment and punishment avoidance), as well as perceived safety, were significant predictors of Snapchat use while driving. It is suggested that perceptions of certainty of apprehension need to be increased for phone use while driving. The findings show the current impact of deterrent initiatives for phone use while driving as well as provide the first examination of deterrents for the specific mobile phone behaviour of Snapchat use while driving.

Powered two-wheeler crash scenario development

Powered two wheeler (PTW) riders are a group of vulnerable road users that are overrepresented compared to other road user groups with regards to crash injury outcomes. The understanding of the dynamics that occur before a crash benefits in providing suitable countermeasures for said crashes. A clearer interpretation of which factors interact to cause collisions allows an understanding of the mechanisms that produce higher risk in specific situations in the roadway. Real world in-depth crash data provides detailed data which includes human, vehicular and environmental factors collected on site for crash analysis purposes. This study used macroscopic on-scene crash data collected in the UK between the years 2000-2010 as part of the "Road Accident In-depth Study" to analyse the factors that were prevalent in 428 powered two-wheeler crashes. A descriptive analysis and latent class cluster analysis was performed to identify the interaction between different crash factors and develop PTW scenarios based on this analysis. The PTW rider was identified as the prime contributor in 36% of the multiple vehicle crashes. Results identified seven specific scenarios, the main types of which identified two particular 'looked but failed to see' crashes and two types of single vehicle PTW crashes. In cases where the PTW lost control diagnosis failures were more common, for road users other than the PTW rider detection issues were of particular relevance.

Distracted Driving, Visual Inattention, and Crash Risk Among Teenage Drivers

INTRODUCTION

Distracted driving resulting from secondary task engagement is a major contributing factor to teenage drivers' crash risk. This study aims to determine the extent to which visual inattention while engaging in distracting secondary tasks contributes to teenage drivers' crash risk.

METHODS

Real-world driving data were collected from a cohort of 82 newly licensed teenagers (average age 16.48 years, SD=0.33) recruited in Virginia. Participants' private vehicles were equipped with data acquisition systems that documented driving kinematics and miles driven, and made video recordings of the driver and driving environment. Data were collected from 2010 to 2014 and analyzed in 2017. The analysis of secondary task engagement was based on 6-second video segments from both crash and random samples of normal driving.

RESULTS

Of a wide range of secondary tasks, only manual cellphone use (OR=2.7, 95% CI=1.1, 6.8) and reaching/handling objects while driving (OR=6.9, 95% CI=2.6, 18.6) were associated with increased crash risk. Drivers' duration of eyes off the road accounted for 41% of the crash risk associated with manual cellphone use and 10% of the risk associated with reaching/handling objects while driving.

CONCLUSIONS

Secondary tasks vary in the risk they introduce to the teenage driver. Manual cellphone use and reaching for objects were found to be associated with increased crash risk. These findings objectively quantify the effect of visual inattention resulting from distracting secondary tasks on teenage drivers' crash risk. Teenage drivers may benefit from technologic and behavioral interventions that will keep their eyes on the road at all times and discourage engagement in distracting secondary tasks.

Impact of adolescent media multitasking on cognition and driving safety

Adolescence is a critical period in brain development particularly in regions related to attention and executive function (EF). As the use of electronics and media in daily activities increases, one essential question is how adolescent attention development and related executive and speed processes are impacted by media multitasking (MM), or the simultaneous use of media (e.g., text messaging while watching television). This review examines current literature concerning (a) the prevalence of MM during adolescence; (b) relations between MM and adolescent cognitive development, specifically attention, speed of processing, and EF; and (c) real-world implications of MM including adolescents and driver distraction. Finally, future challenges and opportunities in MM research are explored with special attention given to overcoming the limitations of current research in this area and the critical need to advance our understanding of the impact of MM on adolescent driver safety.

Elderly pedestrian safety in a rapidly aging society-Commonality and diversity between the younger-old and older-old

OBJECTIVES

Changes in the physical and mental abilities of elderly road users have led to an important question of how to define elderly. In this article, both common and diverse contributory factors to elderly pedestrian injuries are investigated, by segmenting the elderly into the younger-old (65-74) and older-old (75+).

METHODS

An 8-year collision data set in Seoul, South Korea, was utilized, where injury levels were defined as severe vs. nonsevere. Three binary logit models-single contributory factor; age and single factor; and age and joint factors-were modeled using 17 predictor variables to evaluate odds ratios with middle-aged (14-64) pedestrians as a reference group.

RESULTS

In the single contributory factor model, we found that older age was the most critical risk factor leading to severe injury. In the interaction model of age and single contributory factor, higher odds ratios were observed in the older-old than the younger-old for all predictor variables. A set of common contributory factors for both elderly groups was identified, including near overpass crossing, roadside, drunk, and truck. On the other hand, uphill, downhill, nighttime, and sidewalk were found to be a much higher risk to the older-olds. The age and joint factor analysis revealed amplifying effects among risk factors when considered in combination, especially among older-old pedestrians.

CONCLUSIONS

The study investigated the commonality and diversity of pedestrian injuries among the elderly by introducing an additional cutoff age of 75. By employing single and interaction binary logit models, the study identified common risk factors for both elderly groups, as well as those that are particularly hazardous to the older-old. With nearly every country experiencing growth in the elderly population, our study strongly suggests that the conventional definition of a single elderly group is no longer relevant and the variety among elderly pedestrians needs to be considered in traffic safety policy.

FAKTOR PENYEBAB KECELAKAAN LALU LINTAS PADA SISWA SEKOLAH MENENGAH ATAS DI KOTA SAMARINDA

Road accidents were the main causes of mortality at young ages, especially for gentlemen, it can also caused physical disabilities. Mortality rates which happened at young ages were caused by the low rates of their awareness perception due to the harm on traffic. This research was conducted to depict the causes of road accidents and safety riding while using vehicles of senior high school students in Samarinda. This research was conducted in nine senior high school which were chosen to represent each district. The total respondents were 315, which were taken using proportional random sampling, each district were represented by one school. The characteristic of respondents in this research was the students in 10th grade, who ride motorcycles to school. The data were collected using questionnaire, to avoid any bias, it was helped by enumerators. Each enumerator monitored 10 respondents. The data were analyzed using chi square with α 0.05%. The results showed that the accidents rate was 30.8%, the rates of using motorcycle due to has none to accompany were 39,4%, due to the long distance were 11.7%. There was relationship between accident rates and safety riding. The relationship between accident and rebelling yellow lamp was p = 0.015, calling p = 0.041, sending SMS p = 0.000, smoking p = 0.01 and riding with more than two p = 0.043. Meanwhile riding with more than 60 km/h speed, listening to the music, out of the street line, disobey the traffic signs have no relationship with road accidents. Factors that cause accidents are driving behavior called warning lights, using the phone, smoking and more than two people while driving.Keywords: accident, high school, riding

Distraction of cyclists: how does it influence their risky behaviors and traffic crashes?

Background

Undisputedly, traffic crashes constitute a public health concern whose impact and importance have been increasing during the past few decades. Specifically, road safety data have systematically shown how cyclists are highly vulnerable to suffering traffic crashes and severe injuries derived from them. Furthermore, although the empirical evidence is still very limited in this regard, in addition to other human factors involved in cycling crashes, distractions while cycling appear to be a major contributor to the road risk of cyclists.

Objectives

The main objectives of this study were, first, to explore the prevalence and trends of cycling distractions within an international sample of bike users, and second, to determine the influence of such distractions on road crashes suffered by cyclists, simultaneously considering the explanatory role of risky behaviors (errors and traffic violations) as potentially mediating variables between cycling distractions and traffic crashes.

Methods

For this cross-sectional study, we analyzed the data obtained from 1,064 cyclists—61.2% male and 38.8% female—from 20 different countries, who answered an on-line questionnaire on cycling-related features, habits, behaviors and accidents.

Results

The prevalence of different cycling distractions oscillated between 34.7% and 83.6%. The most common distractions were those related to the behavior of other users, physical elements of the road, weather conditions and phone calls. Age trends and differences were also found, thus establishing a positive association between age and distractibility during cycling. Furthermore, the effect of distractions on traffic crashes of cyclists was significant when tested together with age, risk perception and risky behaviors on the road.

Conclusion

The results of this study support the hypotheses that distractions have a major prevalence among bike users, and that they play a significant role in the prediction of the traffic crash rates of cyclists, through the mediation of risky behaviors.

How many crashes are caused by driver interaction with passengers? A meta-analysis approach

INTRODUCTION

Conversation and other interactions with passengers while driving induce a level of distraction to the person driving.

METHOD

This paper conducts a qualitative literature review on the effect of passenger interaction on road safety and then extends it by using meta-analysis techniques.

RESULTS

The literature review indicates that the distraction due to passengers is a very frequent risk factor, with detrimental effects to various driving behavior and safety measures (e.g., slower reaction times to events, increased severity of injuries in crashes), associated with non-negligible proportions of crashes. Particular issues concern the effect of passenger age (children, teenagers) on which the literature is inconclusive. Existing studies vary considerably in terms of study methods and outcome measures. Nevertheless, a meta-analysis could be carried out regarding the proportion of crashes caused by this distraction factor. The selection of studies for the meta-analysis was based on a rigorous method including specific study selection criteria. The findings of the random-effects meta-analyses that were carried out showed that driver interaction with passengers causes a non-negligible proportion of road crashes, namely 3.55% of crashes regardless of the age of the passengers and 3.85% when child and teen passengers are excluded. Both meta-estimates were statistically significant, revealing the need for further research, especially considering the role of passenger age.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Stakeholders could make good estimates on future crash numbers and causes and take action in order to counter the effects of passenger interaction.

Investigating factors influencing pedestrian injury severity at intersections

OBJECTIVE

Vehicle crashes that involve pedestrians at intersections have been reported occasionally. Pedestrian injury severity in these crashes is significantly related to driver and pedestrian attributes, vehicle characteristics, and the geometry of intersections. Identifying factors associated with pedestrian injury severity (PIS) is critical for reducing crashes and improving safety. For developing the proposed probit models, drivers involved in crashes are classified into 3 groups: young drivers (16 ≤ age ≤ 24), middle-aged drivers (25 ≤ age ≤ 64), and older drivers (age ≥ 65). This study determines that PIS is significantly but differently affected by these grouped drivers with different sets of explanatory variables.

METHODS

A total of 2,614 crash records (2011-2012) at intersections in Cook County, Illinois, were collected. An ordered probit modeling approach was employed to develop the proposed model and examine factors influencing PIS. The likelihood ratio test was used to assess model performance. Elasticity analysis was conducted to interpret the marginal effect of contributing factors on PIS associated with different driver groups by age.

RESULTS

The results show that 4 independent variables, including pedestrian age, vehicle type, point of first contact, and weather condition, significantly affect PIS at intersections for all drivers. Two additional independent variables (i.e., number of vehicles and traffic type) affect PIS for young and middle-aged drivers, and 2 other variables (i.e., divided type and hit-and-run related) are significant to PIS for both young and older drivers.

CONCLUSIONS

The independent variables significant to PIS at intersections for young, middle-aged, and older driver groups were identified and the marginal effect of each variable to the likelihood of PIS were assessed.

Secondary collisions and injury severity: A joint analysis using structural equation models

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the contributing factors to secondary collisions and the effects of secondary collisions on injury severity levels. Manhattan, which is the most densely populated urban area of New York City, is used as a case study. In Manhattan, about 7.5% of crash events become involved with secondary collisions and as high as 9.3% of those secondary collisions lead to incapacitating and fatal injuries.

METHODS

Structural equation models (SEMs) are proposed to jointly model the presence of secondary collisions and injury severity levels and adjust for the endogeneity effects. The structural relationship among secondary collisions, injury severity, and contributing factors such as speeding, alcohol, fatigue, brake defects, limited view, and rain are fully explored using SEMs. In addition, to assess the temporal effects, we use time as a moderator in the proposed SEM framework.

RESULTS

Due to its better performance compared with other models, the SEM with no constraint is used to investigate the contributing factors to secondary collisions. Thirteen explanatory variables are found to contribute to the presence of secondary collisions, including alcohol, drugs, inattention, inexperience, sleep, control disregarded, speeding, fatigue, defective brakes, pedestrian involved, defective pavement, limited view, and rain. Regarding the temporal effects, results indicate that it is more likely to sustain secondary collisions and severe injuries at night.

CONCLUSIONS

This study fully investigates the contributing factors to secondary collisions and estimates the safety effects of secondary collisions after adjusting for the endogeneity effects and shows the advantage of using SEMs in exploring the structural relationship between risk factors and safety indicators. Understanding the causes and impacts of secondary collisions can help transportation agencies and automobile manufacturers develop effective injury prevention countermeasures.

Factors associated with self-reported inattentive driving at highway-rail grade crossings

This research identified factors associated with inattentive driving at Highway-Rail Grade Crossings (HRGCs) by investigating drivers' self-reported inattentive driving experiences and factors pertaining to their socioeconomic, personality, attitudinal, and other characteristics. A random selection of 2500 households in Nebraska received a survey questionnaire designed for licensed motor vehicle drivers; respondents returned 980 questionnaires. Factor analysis identified latent variables evaluating drivers' patience and inclination to wait for trains, attitudes toward new technology, law enforcement or education regarding HRGC safety, and the propensity to commit serious traffic violations at HRGCs. The investigation utilized a structural equation model for analysis. This model indicated that drivers with a higher risk of inattentive driving at HRGCs were: female, younger in age, from households with higher incomes, with shorter tenure (in years) in their current city of residence, more frequently used HRGCs, received less information on safety at HRGCs, had less patience to wait for trains to pass and had less interest in safety improvement technology, law enforcement or safety education at HRGCs. These research findings provide useful information for future research and to policy makers for improving public safety. Additionally, the results are useful for safety educational program providers for targeted program delivery to drivers that are more vulnerable to distracted driving at HRGCs.

Elderly road collision injury outcomes associated with seat positions and seatbelt use in a rapidly aging society-A case study in South Korea

INTRODUCTION

Aging has long been regarded as one of the most critical factors affecting crash injury outcomes. In South Korea, where the elderly population is projected to reach 35.9% by 2050, the implications of an increasing number of elderly vehicle users on road safety are evident. In this research, the confounding effect of occupant age in a vehicle in terms of seat position and seatbelt use was investigated. In addition, elderly occupants were divided into a younger-old group aged between 65 and 74 years and an older-old group aged 75 years and older in an effort to assess whether the conventional elderly age standard of 65 years should be reconsidered.

METHODS

A multinomial logit framework was adopted to predict two-level injury severity using collision data between 2008 and 2015. Predictor variables included gender, age group, seat position, seatbelt, road type, road slope, road surface, road line, and type of vehicle. Five models, a base model with no interactions and four interaction models which were combinations of age group, seatbelt use and seat position, were devised and evaluated.

RESULTS

With no interacting term, age was the most prominent predictor. Elderly occupants were most likely to suffer from severe injury without a seatbelt in all seat positions, and the use of a seatbelt reduced this likelihood the most in the elderly group as well. Front passenger seats had the highest risk to elderly occupants, while the driver seat was statistically insignificant. When the elderly group was divided into the younger-old group and the older-old group, the older-olds were found to be much more vulnerable compared to the younger-olds. In particular, older drivers were five times more likely to suffer a severe injury without a seatbelt.

CONCLUSIONS

The degree of injury severity of elderly occupants was reduced the most with the use of a seatbelt, demonstrating the importance of using seat restraints. The sharp increase in the risk of injury of the older-old group suggests that the age standard of 65 years as the elderly group with regard to traffic safety may require reconsideration due to the growing number of elderly vehicle users on the road. Our results provide practical evidence with which to formulate new safety policies, including mandatory seatbelt use, driving age limits and insurance pricing.

Evaluating public education messages aimed at monitoring and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones among young drivers

Young drivers are more likely than any other age group to access social interactive technology (e.g., Facebook, E-mail) on a smartphone while driving. The current study formed part of a larger investigation and was guided by The Step Approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT) to evaluate the relative effectiveness of three different public education messages aimed at reducing smartphone use among young drivers. The messages were each adapted to the specific behaviours of monitoring/reading and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones. Participants (n=288; 199F, 89M) were drivers aged 17-25 years who resided in the Australian state of Queensland. Message acceptance (i.e., intention and effectiveness) and message rejection were both assessed using a self-report survey. Multivariate analyses found that, overall, the messages targeting monitoring/reading behaviour were considered more effective than those targeting responding behaviour. The message that challenged the underlying motivation that believing you are a good driver makes it easier to monitor/read social interactive technology while driving was considered particularly effective by young male drivers.

Extended Visual Glances Away from the Roadway are Associated with ADHD- and Texting-Related Driving Performance Deficits in Adolescents

The purpose of the research study was to determine whether ADHD- and texting-related driving impairments are mediated by extended visual glances away from the roadway. Sixty-one adolescents (ADHD =28, non-ADHD =33; 62% male; 11% minority) aged 16-17 with a valid driver's license were videotaped while engaging in a driving simulation that included a No Distraction, Hands-Free Phone Conversation, and Texting condition. Two indicators of visual inattention were coded: 1) percentage of time with eyes diverted from the roadway; and 2) number of extended (greater than 2 s) visual glances away from the roadway. Adolescents with ADHD displayed significantly more visual inattention to the roadway on both visual inattention measures. Increased lane position variability among adolescents with ADHD compared to those without ADHD during the Hands-Free Phone Conversation and Texting conditions was mediated by an increased number of extended glances away from the roadway. Similarly, texting resulted in decreased visual attention to the roadway. Finally, increased lane position variability during texting was also mediated by the number of extended glances away from the roadway. Both ADHD and texting impair visual attention to the roadway and the consequence of this visual inattention is increased lane position variability. Visual inattention is implicated as a possible mechanism for ADHD- and texting-related deficits and suggests that driving interventions designed to address ADHD- or texting-related deficits in adolescents need to focus on decreasing extended glances away from the roadway.

Distracted Driving in Teens With and Without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

OBJECTIVE

This study is among the first to examine the effect of talking on a cell phone or text messaging while driving in teens with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHOD

Teens (average age 17years) with a diagnosis of ADHD (N=16) were matched with typically developing controls (N=18). All participants operated a driving simulator while (1) conversing on a cell phone, (2) text messaging, and (3) with no distraction during a baseline condition. Six indicators of driving performance were recorded: (a) time to complete the drive; (b) lane deviations; (c) variability in lane position (i.e., root mean square [RMS]); (d) reaction time; (e) motor vehicle collisions; and, (f) speed fluctuation.

RESULTS

Significantly greater variation in lane position occurred in the texting task compared to no task and the cell phone task. While texting, in particular, teens with ADHD took significantly less time to complete the scenario. No significant main effects of group were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Generally, those with ADHD did not differ in regard to driving performance, when compared to controls, with the exception of one outcome: time to complete scenario. These findings suggest that distracted driving impairs driving performance of teen drivers, regardless of ADHD status. Texting while driving had the greatest negative impact on driving performance, particularly with regard to variability in lane position (i.e., RMS). This study sheds light on key issues regarding injury prevention, with the intent of providing pediatric care providers with the knowledge to inform teen drivers of risks associated with distracted driving which will ultimately result in reduced rates of motor vehicle crashes and concomitant injuries.

Message testing to create effective health communication campaigns

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper was to assess a health communication campaign designed to reduce distracted driving among college students within the USA.

Design/methodology/approach

– Utilizing central interviewing techniques, participants were asked qualitative and quantitative items soliciting feedback concerning the efficacy of the messages.

Findings

– The findings indicated students understood, believed, found the messages appealing, and thought the campaign discouraged distracted driving. Several themes emerged from the qualitative analysis, including the prominence of the logo, recommendation to use bright colors, and the suggestion to use more intense graphics.

Research limitations/implications

– First, the data were collected by conducting interviews, potentially leading to some shortcomings associated with self-reported data. Second, while the results indicated that participants perceived that the messages discouraged distracted driving, none of the central intercept interview items assessed participants’ intentions to change their behavior. Third, a convenience sample was used, and thus the generalizability of the results are limited and warrant further research. Finally, because multiple researchers conducted the interviews, it is possible that data were interpreted differently, which could pose a threat to inter-rater reliability.

Practical implications

– Message testing provides practitioners with invaluable feedback in designing effective messages. However, suggestions from the target audience need to be carefully considered before revising messages, as the lay public are not experts in prevention.

Originality/value

– Message testing provides health educators with a specific method to receive feedback from the target audience to ensure they understand and are motivated by the message, resulting in a more effective health communication campaign.

Observed and unobserved correlation between crash avoidance manoeuvers and crash severity

Understanding drivers' responses to critical events, analyzing drivers' abilities to perform corrective manoeuvers, and investigating the correlation between these manoeuvers and crash severity provide the opportunity of increasing the knowledge about how to avoid crash occurrence or at least mitigate crash severity. We extend existing research on the determinants of engaging in crash avoidance manoeuvers by considering that observable and unobservable factors relate to both the selection of corrective manoeuvers and the severity outcome. Accordingly, we propose a joint multinomial-logit ordered-probit model of single-vehicle crashes extracted from the NASS GES database for the years 2005-2009. Results show (1) the existence of unobserved correlation between crash avoidance manoeuvers and crash severity, and (2) the link between drivers' attributes, risky driving behaviour, road characteristics, and environmental conditions, with the propensity to engage in crash avoidance manoeuvers and experience severe crash outcomes.

Mobile phone use while driving: a hybrid modeling approach

The analysis of the effects that mobile phone use produces while driving is a topic of great interest for the scientific community. There is consensus that using a mobile phone while driving increases the risk of exposure to traffic accidents. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the drivers' behavior when they decide whether or not to use a mobile phone while driving. For that, a hybrid modeling approach that integrates a choice model with the latent variable "risk perception" was used. It was found that workers and individuals with the highest education level are more prone to use a mobile phone while driving than others. Also, "risk perception" is higher among individuals who have been previously fined and people who have been in an accident or almost been in an accident. It was also found that the tendency to use mobile phones while driving increases when the traffic speed reduces, but it decreases when the fine increases. Even though the urgency of the phone call is the most important explanatory variable in the choice model, the cost of the fine is an important attribute in order to control mobile phone use while driving.

The effects of age, gender, and crash types on drivers' injury-related health care costs

There are many studies that evaluate the effects of age, gender, and crash types on crash related injury severity. However, few studies investigate the effects of those crash factors on the crash related health care costs for drivers that are transported to hospital. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between drivers' age, gender, and the crash types, as well as other crash characteristics (e.g., not wearing a seatbelt, weather condition, and fatigued driving), on the crash related health care costs. The South Carolina Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (SC CODES) from 2005 to 2007 was used to construct six separate hierarchical linear regression models based on drivers' age and gender. The results suggest that older drivers have higher health care costs than younger drivers and male drivers tend to have higher health care costs than female drivers in the same age group. Overall, single vehicle crashes had the highest health care costs for all drivers. For males older than 64-years old sideswipe crashes are as costly as single vehicle crashes. In general, not wearing a seatbelt, airbag deployment, and speeding were found to be associated with higher health care costs. Distraction-related crashes are more likely to be associated with lower health care costs in most cases. Furthermore this study highlights the value of considering drivers in subgroups, as some factors have different effects on health care costs in different driver groups. Developing an understanding of longer term outcomes of crashes and their characteristics can lead to improvements in vehicle technology, educational materials, and interventions to reduce crash-related health care costs.

Associations of distraction involvement and age with driver injury severities

INTRODUCTION

This paper investigates the associations between the severity of injuries sustained by a driver who is involved in a two-vehicle crash, the existence and type of driver distraction as well as driver's age. Few studies investigated distraction as it relates to injury severity. Moreover, these studies did not consider driver age which is a significant factor related to driving behavior and the ability to respond in a crash situation.

METHODS

An ordered logit model was built to predict injury severity sustained by drivers using data from the U.S. National Automotive Sampling System's General Estimates System (2003 to 2008). Various factors (e.g., weather, gender, and speeding) were statistically controlled for, but the main focus was on the interaction of driver age and distraction type.

RESULTS

The trends observed for young and mid-age drivers were similar. For these age groups, dialing or texting on the cell phone, passengers, and in-vehicle sources resulted in an increase in a likelihood of more severe injuries. Talking on the cell phone had a similar effect for younger drivers but was not significant for mid-age drivers. Inattention and distractions outside the vehicle decreased the odds of severe injuries. For older drivers, the highest odds of severe injuries were observed with dialing or texting on a cell phone, followed by in-vehicle sources and talking on the cell phone. All these sources were associated with an increased likelihood of injury severity. Similar to young and mid-age drivers, distractions outside the vehicle decreased the odds of severe injuries. Other distraction types did not have a significant effect for the older age group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results support previous literature and extend our understanding of crash injury severity.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The findings have implications for policy making and the design of distraction mitigation systems.

The driver, the road, the rules … and the rest? A systems-based approach to young driver road safety

The persistent overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes is universally recognised. A multitude of factors influencing their behaviour and safety have been identified through methods including crash analyses, simulated and naturalistic driving studies, and self-report measures. Across the globe numerous, diverse, countermeasures have been implemented; the design of the vast majority of these has been informed by a driver-centric approach. An alternative approach gaining popularity in transport safety is the systems approach which considers not only the characteristics of the individual, but also the decisions and actions of other actors within the road transport system, along with the interactions amongst them. This paper argues that for substantial improvements to be made in young driver road safety, what has been learnt from driver-centric research needs to be integrated into a systems approach, thus providing a holistic appraisal of the young driver road safety problem. Only then will more effective opportunities and avenues for intervention be realised.

The effects of texting on driving performance in a driving simulator: the influence of driver age

Distracted driving is a significant contributor to motor vehicle accidents and fatalities, and texting is a particularly significant form of driver distraction that continues to be on the rise. The present study examined the influence of driver age (18-59 years old) and other factors on the disruptive effects of texting on simulated driving behavior. While 'driving' the simulator, subjects were engaged in a series of brief text conversations with a member of the research team. The primary dependent variable was the occurrence of Lane Excursions (defined as any time the center of the vehicle moved outside the directed driving lane, e.g., into the lane for oncoming traffic or onto the shoulder of the road), measured as (1) the percent of subjects that exhibited Lane Excursions, (2) the number of Lane Excursions occurring and (3) the percent of the texting time in Lane Excursions. Multiple Regression analyses were used to assess the influence of several factors on driving performance while texting, including text task duration, texting skill level (subject-reported), texting history (#texts/week), driver gender and driver age. Lane Excursions were not observed in the absence of texting, but 66% of subjects overall exhibited Lane Excursions while texting. Multiple Regression analysis for all subjects (N=50) revealed that text task duration was significantly correlated with the number of Lane Excursions, and texting skill level and driver age were significantly correlated with the percent of subjects exhibiting Lane Excursions. Driver gender was not significantly correlated with Lane Excursions during texting. Multiple Regression analysis of only highly skilled texters (N=27) revealed that driver age was significantly correlated with the number of Lane Excursions, the percent of subjects exhibiting Lane Excursions and the percent of texting time in Lane Excursions. In contrast, Multiple Regression analysis of those drivers who self-identified as not highly skilled texters (N=23) revealed that text task duration was significantly correlated with the number of Lane Excursions. The present studies confirm past reports that texting impairs driving simulator performance. Moreover, the present study demonstrates that for highly skilled texters, the effects of texting on driving are actually worse for older drivers. Given the increasing frequency of texting while driving within virtually all age groups, these data suggest that 'no texting while driving' education and public service messages need to be continued, and they should be expanded to target older drivers as well.

Exposure to Movie Reckless Driving in Early Adolescence Predicts Reckless, but Not Inattentive Driving

OBJECTIVE

We examine the association between exposure to depictions of reckless driving in movies and unsafe driving, modeling inattentive and reckless driving as separate outcomes.

METHODS

Data were obtained by telephone from 1,630 US adolescents aged 10 to 14 years at baseline who were drivers at a survey 6 years later. Exposure to movie reckless driving was measured based on movies seen from a randomly selected list of 50 movie titles that had been content coded for reckless driving among characters. Associations were tested with inattentive and reckless driving behaviors in the subsequent survey-controlling for baseline age, sex, socioeconomic status, parental education, school performance, extracurricular activities, daily television and video/computer game exposure, number of movies watched per week, self-regulation and sensation seeking.

RESULTS

Exposure to movie reckless driving was common, with approximately 10% of movie characters having driven recklessly. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a significant distinction between items tapping reckless and inattentive driving at the 6th wave. Age and exposure to movie reckless driving at baseline were directly associated with wave-6 reckless (but not inattentive) driving. Additionally, growth in sensation seeking mediated a prospective relation between the total number of movies watched per week at baseline and reckless driving, independent of exposure to movie reckless driving. Males and high sensation seekers reported lower seatbelt usage and more reckless driving, whereas lower self-regulation predicted inattentive driving.

DISCUSSION

In this study, exposure to movie reckless driving during early adolescence predicted adolescents' reckless driving, suggesting a direct modeling effect. Other aspects of movies were also associated with reckless driving, with that association mediated through growth in sensation seeking. Predictors of reckless driving were different from predictors of inattentive driving, with lower self-regulation associated with the latter outcome. Making a clear distinction between interventions for reckless or inattentive driving seems crucial for accident prevention.

Share of mass transit miles traveled and reduced motor vehicle fatalities in major cities of the United States

The USA leads the developed world in motor vehicle fatalities, presenting a critical public health threat. We examined whether an increasing share of mass transit use, relative to vehicle miles traveled on public roads, was associated with reduced motor vehicle fatalities. We used annual city-level data for the USA from 1982-2010 provided by the Fatality Accident Reporting System, the Texas A&M Transportation Institute, the Census Bureau, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to estimate a structural equation model of the factors associated with mass transit miles and motor vehicle fatalities. The final analytic data included 2,900 observations from 100 cities over 29 years. After accounting for climate, year, and the economic costs of driving, an increasing share of mass transit miles traveled per capita was associated with reduced motor vehicle fatalities. The costs of congestion to the average commuter and gas prices were positively associated with increasing the share of mass transit miles traveled. The economic costs of driving increased over time, while both the fatality rate and the share of mass transit miles traveled decreased over time. Increasing the share of mass transit miles traveled may be associated with fewer motor vehicle miles traveled. Increasing mass transit uptake may be an effective public health intervention to reduce motor vehicle fatalities in cities.