Evaluating public education messages aimed at monitoring and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones among young drivers

Do comparative judgements affect the perceived relevance of mobile phone road safety campaigns?

OBJECTIVE

Given the prevalence of illegal mobile phone use while driving and reliance upon messaging campaigns in deterring the behavior, there is a need to explore to what extent comparative judgements may influence desired outcomes of such campaigns. This exploratory study investigated (a) the perceived relevance and influence of different mobile phone road safety campaigns within a sample of Queensland motorists who reported using their mobile phone while driving and (b) if these varied depending on whether participants believed that their crash risk whilst using a phone was higher (comparative pessimism), lower (comparative optimism) or similar to the same-age and sex driver.

METHODS

A total of 350 licensed drivers residing within Queensland (Australia) were included in this study, of which 200 reported using their hand-held phone on some occasion. Participation involved completing a 20-25 min online anonymous survey, which included viewing three mobile phone road safety campaigns (injury-based, sanction-based and humor) and responding to questions about the perceived relevance and impact of each campaign.

RESULTS

A total of 64 (32%) participants displayed comparative optimism, 50 displayed similar judgements (25%) and 86 (43%) exhibited comparative pessimism. First, it was found that the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more relevant than the humor campaign. Second, whilst the relevance of each campaign did not vary as a function of group membership, the campaigns were significantly less relevant to those displaying comparative optimism relative to those with similar judgements and comparative pessimism. Finally, the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more influential than the other campaigns. However, overall, participants displaying comparative optimism believed that they would be less influenced by the campaigns compared to those with comparative pessimism.

CONCLUSIONS

Although preliminary, these findings suggest that low perceptions of risk may dilute or extinguish the desired behavioral outcomes of mobile phone road safety campaigns. Nonetheless, experimental research is needed to examine these effects directly.

Exploring the Behaviour Change Wheel and the Theoretical Domains Framework in interventions for mobile phone driver distraction: A scoping review

Mobile phone use while driving remains a significant traffic safety concern. Although numerous interventions have been developed to address it, there is a gap in the synthesis of relevant information through a comprehensive behaviour change lens. This scoping review uses the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) and the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to examine the literature to (a) identify behavioural constructs targeted in interventions for mobile phone use while driving, (b) determine if the intervention success varied by sociodemographic group (e.g., age, gender, driving experience), and (c) map interventions to TDF domains to highlight areas for future research. Following the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews, we searched seven databases and identified 5,202 articles. After screening, 50 articles detailing 56 studies met the following inclusion criteria: (a) intervention studies, (b) providing details on methods and results, (c) written in English, and (d) targeting any driver behaviour related to mobile phone use while driving with a bottom-up approach, using not regulation or law enforcement, but individuals' psychological processes, such as cognitive, behavioural, and emotional. Findings show that most interventions targeted young drivers and were typically effective. Except for a few studies, the effectiveness of interventions targeting different sociodemographic groups either remained untested or revealed nonsignificant differences. This finding points to a gap in the literature, indicating a need for further investigation into the efficacy of interventions for different groups, and for tailoring and testing them accordingly. The interventions also often targeted multiple TDF domains, complicating the interpretation of the relative efficacy of specific domains. Most frequently targeted domains included beliefs and consequences, emotions, knowledge, social influence, social/professional role and identity, and behavioural regulation. Physical skills and optimism domains were not targeted in any intervention. Further, almost all interventions addressed deliberate engagement in mobile phone distractions, while the automatic and fast processes involved in such behaviours were often overlooked. Mobile phone distractions are in part habitual behaviours, yet the existing mitigation efforts mostly assumed intentional engagement. More focus on the habitual nature of mobile phone distractions is needed.

Normative influences on young drivers' illegal smartphone use: Applying an extended Theory of Normative Social Behaviour

In the 12 months to November 2021, 19 % of the people killed on Australian roads were aged between 17 and 25 years, despite this age group making up just 12 % of the driving population. A substantial number of these crashes resulted from smartphone use. It is widely accepted that norms influence young drivers' smartphone use; however, there is a dearth of research investigating how different norms interact to influence this behaviour. The current survey study (N = 137) applied an extended Theory of Normative Social Behaviour (TNSB) to investigate illegal smartphone use among young drivers. The original TNSB model proposes that injunctive norm (i.e., perceived societal approval), outcome expectancies, and group identity each moderate the relationship between descriptive norm and behavioural intention. The current study added subjective norm (i.e., perceived approval from important others) to the model. Moderation analyses found that only subjective norm moderated the relationship between descriptive norm and behavioural intention, whereas subjective norm, injunctive norm, and outcome expectancies each partially mediated this relationship. These findings provided partial support for the TNSB. They highlighted the influence of a range of norms on young drivers' smartphone use (i.e., descriptive norm, subjective norm, and injunctive norm) and, in particular, the influence of subjective norm in this context. It also highlights the importance of investigating how norms interact with each other to influence the relationship between descriptive norm and behavioural intention. In accordance with these findings, future public education messages should challenge normative influences, and subjective norm in particular, on young drivers' smartphone use.

Deterring illegal smartphone use while driving: Are perceptions of risk information associated with the impact of informal sanctions?

Advertising campaigns have used threat appeals to increase the perceptions of risk associated with dangerous driving behaviours. Building on recent research that suggests increasing the pertinence of informal sanctions (sense of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others) decreases the likelihood of illegal smartphone engagement while driving, this study aimed to determine if perceptions of risk information, that is, how effective drivers believe the information is in deterring their illegal use, is associated with perceptions of informal sanctions. An online survey of 1027 Victorians who self-reported illegal smartphone use while driving asked participants to rate the personal deterrent effectiveness of five types of risks associated with illegal smartphone use while driving. A hierarchical linear regression model explored the associations between the most effective risks and each informal sanction. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to experience guilt, fear of social loss and fear of physical loss when using their smartphones illegally. More frequent illegal smartphone engagement while driving was associated with decreased impact of informal sanctions. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to perceive each risk as effective. The most effective piece of information was, "Contributes to 16% of Victorian road deaths and serious injuries annually"; it was also the least known (32.7% males, 26.7% females). This message, alongside, "Increases risk of a crash comparable to those associated with driving under the influence of alcohol or cannabis" and, "A 2 s glance at your phone while driving at 50 km/h effectively means driving blind for 27 m", were associated with stronger perceptions of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others when thinking about using a smartphone illegally while driving. These results suggest tailoring and targeting these specific risk information may be effective in deterring illegal smartphone use while driving.

Smartphone use among young drivers: Applying an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour to predict young drivers' intention and engagement in concealed responding

Young drivers, aged 17-25 years, are more likely than other age groups to access social interactive technologies (e.g., Snapchat, Facebook) on their smartphones while driving. Many of these young drivers do so in a concealed manner, thereby diverting their eyes from the road for extended periods and increasing their crash risk. In accordance with previous research, an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was applied in this survey study to investigate psychosocial predictors of young drivers' intention, and behaviour, of responding to social interactive technology on a smartphone in a concealed manner. Participants (N = 154) resided in Australia, were aged 17-25 years, owned a provisional or an open licence, and owned a smartphone. Participants completed two online surveys administered 1-week apart. The first survey measured intention and assessed the TPB standard constructs of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, as well as the additional constructs of anticipated action regret, anticipated inaction regret, and problematic mobile phone usage. The first survey also assessed whether there were any differences in the salient beliefs (elicited in a previous study) about smartphone use between high and low intenders to engage in this behaviour. The second survey measured engagement in the behaviour of responding in a concealed manner in the previous week. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed the standard TPB accounted for 69% of variance in intention, and a further 4% was accounted for by the extended constructs. In the final model, all variables, except anticipated inaction regret, were significant predictors of intention. Intention was the only significant predictor of behaviour. A series of MANOVAs found significant differences in the salient belief items between high and low intenders (e.g., high intenders were more likely to believe that friends/peers and other drivers would approve of them engaging in this behaviour). These key findings can be used as focal points for public education messages to persuade young drivers to reduce the frequency of their smartphone use, which is vital to improve road safety for all users.

Targeting Smartphone Use While Driving: Drivers’ Reactions to Different Types of Safety Messages

Only a few previous studies analyzed the effectiveness of road safety messages targeting smartphone use while driving and only several of them used messages from an ongoing road safety campaign. Thus, contributing to the field, this study aimed at testing the effectiveness of two types of social messages (threat appeal and threat appeal together with safe behavior role modelling) targeting smartphone use while driving. Ninety-three drivers were randomly assigned to two experimental (n1 = 26; n2 = 37) and one control (n = 29) groups. Each experimental group was presented with one 30 s length video message to reduce or stop smartphone use while driving. Messages differed in terms of threat appeal and modelling of safe behavior. The control group was presented with a 30 s length video clip showing neutral driving related content. The results revealed that threat appeals (alone or together with a safe role model) resulted in less positive emotions when compared to the control group’s reported emotional reactions. The message with threat appeal only also resulted in more negative emotions compared to the control group. With regards to behavioral intentions, road safety messages used in this study had minor effectiveness: the threat appeal message reduced the intentions to use smartphones while driving, only when previous behavior has been controlled. In sum, messages targeting smartphone use while driving were effective at least to some extent in changing drivers’ emotions and intentions not to be involved in targeted behavior, but the effect was minor and threat appeal only showed higher effectiveness.

Identifying Interactive Factors That May Increase Crash Risk between Young Drivers and Trucks: A Narrative Review

Sharing the road with trucks is associated with increased risk of serious injury and death for passenger vehicle drivers. However, the onus for minimising risk lies not just with truck drivers; other drivers must understand the unique performance limitations of trucks associated with stopping distances, blind spots, and turning manoeuverability, so they can suitably act and react around trucks. Given the paucity of research aimed at understanding the specific crash risk vulnerability of young drivers around trucks, the authors employ a narrative review methodology that brings together evidence from both truck and young driver road safety research domains, as well as data regarding known crash risks for each driving cohort, to gain a comprehensive understanding of what young drivers are likely to know about heavy vehicle performance limitations, where there may be gaps in their understanding, and how this could potentially increase crash risk. We then review literature regarding the human factors affecting young drivers to understand how perceptual immaturity and engagement in risky driving behaviours are likely to compound risk regarding both the frequency and severity of collision between trucks and young drivers. Finally, we review current targeted educational initiatives and suggest that simply raising awareness of truck limitations is insufficient. We propose that further research is needed to ensure initiatives aimed at increasing young driver awareness of trucks and truck safety are evidence-based, undergo rigorous evaluation, and are delivered in a way that aims to (i) increase young driver risk perception skills, and (ii) reduce risky driving behaviour around trucks.

Keeping Safe on Australian Roads: Overview of Key Determinants of Risky Driving, Passenger Injury, and Fatalities for Indigenous Populations

Social and cultural barriers associated with inequitable access to driver licensing and associated road safety education, as well as socioeconomic issues that preclude ongoing vehicle maintenance and registration, result in unsafe in-car behaviours such as passenger overcrowding. This in turn is associated with improper seatbelt usage, noncompliance with child restraint mandates, and driver distraction. For example, in Australia, where seatbelt use is mandatory, Indigenous road users are three times less likely to wear seatbelts than non-Indigenous road users. This is associated with a disproportionately high fatality rate for Indigenous drivers and passengers; 21% of Indigenous motor-vehicle occupants killed on Australian roads were not wearing a seatbelt at the time of impact. In addition, inequitable access to driver licensing instruction due to financial and cultural barriers results in Indigenous learner drivers having limited access to qualified mentors and instructors. A consequent lack of road safety instruction results in a normalising of risky driving behaviours, perpetuated through successive generations of drivers. Moreover, culturally biased driver instruction manuals, which are contextualised within an English written-language learning framework, fail to accommodate the learning needs of Indigenous peoples who may encounter difficulties with English literacy. This results in difficulty understanding the fundamental road rules, which in turn makes it difficult for young drivers to develop and sustain safe in-car behaviours. This paper considers the literature regarding road safety for Indigenous road users and critically evaluates strategies and policies that have been advanced to protect Indigenous drivers. Novel solutions to increasing road safety rule compliance are proposed, particularly in relation to passenger safety, which are uniquely embedded within Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing. Safe driving practices have crucial health and social implications for Indigenous communities by allowing more Indigenous people to participate in work and education opportunities, access healthcare, maintain cultural commitments, and engage with families and friends, qualities which are essential for ongoing health and wellbeing.

Gender differences in the effectiveness of public education messages aimed at smartphone use among young drivers

Objective: The main aim of this survey study was to evaluate the relative persuasiveness of three newly developed and piloted public education messages aimed at monitoring/reading social interactive technology on a smartphone among young male and female drivers. In accordance with the Step Approach to Message Design and Testing, the messages were evaluated on a number of outcome measures and also explored the influence of self-reported involvement in the target behavior.Methods: Participants (N = 152; 105 F) were aged 17 to 25 years (M_age = 20.14 years, SD = 2.35) and were randomly allocated to either an intervention (one of the three messages) or control (no message) condition. The messages in the intervention group were assessed on acceptance (i.e., behavioral intention and message effectiveness), rejection, and the third person effect (TPE) differential score (i.e., the message is perceived to be more effective for others than for themselves).Results: Hierarchical regression analyses found that, compared to males, females reported: a) lower intention to monitor/read social interactive technology on a smartphone while driving, b) lower rejection; and, c) lower TPE likelihood, irrespective of message.Conclusions: These findings suggest that young male drivers and young female drivers require different message content to be effective and support the importance of including multiple outcome measures to explain the messages' persuasive effects.

Predicting the monitoring/reading of communications on a smartphone among young drivers using an extended theory of planned behaviour

Australian drivers aged 17-25 years are overrepresented in road crashes, with many crashes resulting from smartphone use. The current study, based on a prospective design and an extended TPB framework, predicted young drivers' intentions to, and actual behaviour of, monitoring/reading social interactive technology via a smartphone while driving. An online survey at Time 1 (N = 167) assessed the TPB constructs of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behaviour control (PBC), and the additional factors of habit, mindfulness and cognitive capture. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the TPB constructs accounted for 76.4% in the variance of young drivers' intentions. The extended model, which included habit, mindfulness and cognitive capture accounted for a significant 79% of the variance in intention, and these additional factors explained a significant amount of variance over and above the TPB constructs. The Time 2 survey (N = 95) assessed actual behaviour in relation to smartphone use in the one-week period between the Time 1 and 2 surveys. Results from a multiple regression analysis of Time 2 found that, as expected, intention was a significant predictor of the behaviour of monitoring/reading a smartphone while driving. The results support the TPB for predicting intention and actual behaviour in relation to monitoring/reading a smartphone while driving. The theoretical and practical implications of the current study are discussed as well as recommendations for future research.

Y TXT N DRIVE? Predictors of texting while driving among a sample of Ontario youth and young adults

BACKGROUND

Distracted driving is of particular concern among young drivers. According to the 2012 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) survey, the greatest proportion of distraction prone drivers is within the 16-19 and 20-24 age groups. One relatively new distraction is texting while driving behaviour (TWD). TWD increases the amount of time drivers spend looking away from the road, slows reaction times and increases the risk of collisions by two-fold. To deter this behaviour many distracted driving campaigns focus on highlighting the risks and dangers of distracted driving; however, evidence suggests that youth and young adults continue to engage in TWD despite awareness of the related risks. Previous studies have examined constructs from the theory of planned behaviour as predictors of TWD (e.g., attitudes, intentions). Understanding the full range of factors that may influence this behaviour can inform the development of evidence-based public awareness campaigns and related interventions.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this paper was to examine predictors of TWD behaviour among youth and young adults. We examined constructs from the theory of planned behaviour in addition to the role played by perceived TWD driving skills, experience with collisions due to TWD, descriptive norms (i.e., an individual's beliefs about a behaviour that are gained as a result of observing the actions of others) and risk perceptions.

METHODS

An online survey was administered to 2001 Ontario youth and young adults examining potential predictors of TWD behaviour. Regression models were used to examine which key variables were associated with TWD (both reading and sending behaviour) among participants.

RESULTS

Overall, regression models had good predictability for reading and sending behaviours. Perceived TWD driving skills and 'almost getting in a collision due to TWD' were positively associated with TWD behaviour in the past week (both reading and sending behaviours). Descriptive norms were positively associated with sending text messages while driving in the past week, but were not significant for reading. In contrast, risk perceptions were positively associated with reading text messages in the past week but not sending.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results from this study highlight constructs that can be used to design interventions to deter young drivers from engaging in TWD. Interventions targeting perceived TWD driving skills and descriptive norms have the potential to be more effective than interventions emphasizing risk perceptions. Future studies are needed to better understand the relationships between these predictors and TWD behaviour among this population.