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Gwinn JK, Robertson A, Ivanova L, Fæste CK, Kryuchkov F, Uhlig S. Identification and cross-species comparison of in vitro phase I brevetoxin (BTX-2) metabolites in northern Gulf of Mexico fish and human liver microsomes by UHPLC-HRMS(/MS). Toxicon X 2023; 19:100168. [PMID: 37483846 PMCID: PMC10362319 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Brevetoxins (BTX) are a group of marine neurotoxins produced by the harmful alga Karenia brevis. Numerous studies have shown that BTX are rapidly accumulated and metabolized in shellfish and mammals. However, there are only limited data on BTX metabolism in fish, despite growing evidence that fish serve as vectors for BTX transfer in marine food webs. In this study, we aimed to investigate the in vitro biotransformation of BTX-2, the major constituent of BTX profiles in K. brevis, in several species of northern Gulf of Mexico fish. Metabolism assays were performed using hepatic microsomes prepared in-house as well as commercially available human microsomes for comparison, focusing on phase I reactions mediated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP) enzymes. Samples were analyzed by UHPLC-HRMS(/MS) to monitor BTX-2 depletion and characterize BTX metabolites based on MS/MS fragmentation pathways. Our results showed that both fish and human liver microsomes rapidly depleted BTX-2, resulting in a 72-99% reduction within 1 h of incubation. We observed the simultaneous production of 22 metabolites functionalized by reductions, oxidations, and other phase I reactions. We were able to identify the previously described congeners BTX-3 and BTX-B5, and tentatively identified BTX-9, 41,43-dihydro-BTX-2, several A-ring hydrolysis products, as well as several novel metabolites. Our results confirmed that fish are capable of similar BTX biotransformation reactions as reported for shellfish and mammals, but comparison of metabolite formation across the tested species suggested considerable interspecific variation in BTX-2 metabolism potentially leading to divergent BTX profiles. We additionally observed non-enzymatic formation of BTX-2 and BTX-3 glutathione conjugates. Collectively, these findings have important implications for determining the ecotoxicological fate of BTX in marine food webs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Kay Gwinn
- University of South Alabama, School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Mobile, AL, 36688, United States
- Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, AL, 36528, United States
| | - Alison Robertson
- University of South Alabama, School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Mobile, AL, 36688, United States
- Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, AL, 36528, United States
| | - Lada Ivanova
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Toxinology Research Group, NO-1431, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Toxinology Research Group, NO-1431, Ås, Norway
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Toxinology Research Group, NO-1431, Ås, Norway
- Nordic Institute of Dental Materials, NO-0855, Oslo, Norway
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Darius HT, Revel T, Viallon J, Sibat M, Cruchet P, Longo S, Hardison DR, Holland WC, Tester PA, Litaker RW, McCall JR, Hess P, Chinain M. Comparative Study on the Performance of Three Detection Methods for the Quantification of Pacific Ciguatoxins in French Polynesian Strains of Gambierdiscus polynesiensis. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20060348. [PMID: 35736151 PMCID: PMC9229625 DOI: 10.3390/md20060348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa dinoflagellates produce a suite of secondary metabolites, including ciguatoxins (CTXs), which bioaccumulate and are further biotransformed in fish and marine invertebrates, causing ciguatera poisoning when consumed by humans. This study is the first to compare the performance of the fluorescent receptor binding assay (fRBA), neuroblastoma cell-based assay (CBA-N2a), and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the quantitative estimation of CTX contents in 30 samples, obtained from four French Polynesian strains of Gambierdiscus polynesiensis. fRBA was applied to Gambierdiscus matrix for the first time, and several parameters of the fRBA protocol were refined. Following liquid/liquid partitioning to separate CTXs from other algal compounds, the variability of CTX contents was estimated using these three methods in three independent experiments. All three assays were significantly correlated with each other, with the highest correlation coefficient (r2 = 0.841) found between fRBA and LC-MS/MS. The CBA-N2a was more sensitive than LC-MS/MS and fRBA, with all assays showing good repeatability. The combined use of fRBA and/or CBA-N2a for screening purposes and LC-MS/MS for confirmation purposes allows for efficient CTX evaluation in Gambierdiscus. These findings, which support future collaborative studies for the inter-laboratory validation of CTX detection methods, will help improve ciguatera risk assessment and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Taiana Darius
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +689-40-416-484
| | - Taina Revel
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Jérôme Viallon
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Manoëlla Sibat
- IFREMER, PHYTOX, Laboratoire METALG, F-44000 Nantes, France; (M.S.); (P.H.)
| | - Philippe Cruchet
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Sébastien Longo
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Donnie Ransom Hardison
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA; (D.R.H.); (W.C.H.)
| | - William C. Holland
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA; (D.R.H.); (W.C.H.)
| | | | - R. Wayne Litaker
- CSS, Inc. Under Contract to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Ocean Service, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA;
| | - Jennifer R. McCall
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA;
| | - Philipp Hess
- IFREMER, PHYTOX, Laboratoire METALG, F-44000 Nantes, France; (M.S.); (P.H.)
| | - Mireille Chinain
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins, UMR 241-EIO (IFREMER, ILM, IRD, Université de Polynésie Française), P.O. Box 30, Papeete 98713, French Polynesia; (T.R.); (J.V.); (P.C.); (S.L.); (M.C.)
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Guidance Level for Brevetoxins in French Shellfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19090520. [PMID: 34564182 PMCID: PMC8468261 DOI: 10.3390/md19090520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Brevetoxins (BTXs) are marine biotoxins responsible for neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) after ingestion of contaminated shellfish. NSP is characterized by neurological, gastrointestinal and/or cardiovascular symptoms. The main known producer of BTXs is the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, but other microalgae are also suspected to synthesize BTX-like compounds. BTXs are currently not regulated in France and in Europe. In November 2018, they have been detected for the first time in France in mussels from a lagoon in the Corsica Island (Mediterranean Sea), as part of the network for monitoring the emergence of marine biotoxins in shellfish. To prevent health risks associated with the consumption of shellfish contaminated with BTXs in France, a working group was set up by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses). One of the aims of this working group was to propose a guidance level for the presence of BTXs in shellfish. Toxicological data were too limited to derive an acute oral reference dose (ARfD). Based on human case reports, we identified two lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs). A guidance level of 180 µg BTX-3 eq./kg shellfish meat is proposed, considering a protective default portion size of 400 g shellfish meat.
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O'Neill A, Morrell N, Turner AD, Maskrey BH. Method performance verification for the combined detection and quantitation of the marine neurotoxins cyclic imines and brevetoxin shellfish metabolites in mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) by UHPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1179:122864. [PMID: 34343946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A single laboratory method performance verification is reported for a rapid sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of eight cyclic imine and two brevetoxin analogues in two bivalve shellfish matrices: mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Targeted cyclic imine analogues were from the spirolide, gymnodimine and pinnatoxin groups, namely 20-Me-SPX-C, 13-desMe-SPX-C, 13,19-didesMe-SPX-C, GYM-A, 12-Me-GYM, PnTx-E, PnTx-F and PnTx-G. Brevetoxin analogues consisted of the shellfish metabolites BTX-B5 and S-desoxy-BTX-B2. A rapid dispersive extraction was used as well as a fast six-minute UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Mobile phase prepared using ammonium fluoride and methanol was optimised for both chromatographic separation and MS/MS response to suit all analytes. Method performance verification checks for both matrices were carried out. Matrix influence was acceptable for the majority of analogues with the MS response for all analogues being linear across an appropriate range of concentrations. In terms of limits of detection and quantitation the method was shown to be highly sensitive when compared with other methods. Acceptable recoveries were found with most analogues, with laboratory precision in terms of intra- and inter-batch precision deemed appropriate. The method was applied to environmental shellfish samples with results showing low concentrations of cyclic imines to be present. The method is fast and highly sensitive for the detection and quantification of all targeted analogues, in both mussel and oyster matrices. Consequently, the method has been shown to provide a useful tool for simultaneous monitoring for the presence or future emergence of these two toxin groups in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Nadine Morrell
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
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5
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Shen H, Song X, Zhang Y, Zhang P, Li J, Song W, Yu Z. Profiling of Brevetoxin Metabolites Produced by Karenia brevis 165 Based on Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050354. [PMID: 34069292 PMCID: PMC8156667 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, Karenia brevis 165 (K. brevis 165), a Chinese strain, was used to research brevetoxin (BTX) metabolites. The sample pretreatment method for the enrichment of BTX metabolites in an algal culture medium was improved here. The method for screening and identifying intracellular and extracellular BTX metabolites was established based on liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ToF-MS) and liquid chromatography triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS/MS). The results show that the recovery rates for BTX toxins enriched by a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) extraction column were higher than those with a C18 extraction column. This method was used to analyze the profiles of extracellular and intracellular BTX metabolites at different growth stages of K. brevis 165. This is the first time a Chinese strain of K. brevis has been reported that can produce toxic BTX metabolites. Five and eight kinds of BTX toxin metabolites were detected in the cell and culture media of K. brevis 165, respectively. Brevenal, a toxic BTX metabolite antagonist, was found for the first time in the culture media. The toxic BTX metabolites and brevenal in the K. brevis 165 cell and culture media were found to be fully proven in terms of the necessity of establishing a method for screening and identifying toxic BTX metabolites. The results found by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing BTX metabolites produced by K. brevis 165 at different growth stages show that the total toxic BTX metabolite contents in single cells ranged between 6.78 and 21.53 pg/cell, and the total toxin concentration in culture media ranged between 10.27 and 449.11 μg/L. There were significant differences in the types and contents of toxic BTX metabolites with varying growth stages. Therefore, when harmful algal blooms occur, the accurate determination of BTX metabolite types and concentrations will be helpful to assess the ecological disaster risk in order to avoid hazards and provide appropriate disaster warnings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihui Shen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiuxian Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Yue Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Peipei Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jing Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Weijia Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhiming Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.S.); (Y.Z.); (P.Z.); (J.L.); (W.S.); (Z.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
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Wang J, Chen J, He X, Hao S, Wang Y, Zheng X, Wang B. Simple determination of six groups of lipophilic marine algal toxins in seawater by automated on-line solid phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:128374. [PMID: 33182088 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine algal toxins (LMATs) are highly toxic secondary metabolites produced by marine microalgae that pose a great threat to marine aquaculture organisms and human health. In this study, a novel and automated method for the simultaneous determination of six groups of LMATs in seawater was developed by on-line solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Condition optimization and method validation were performed, and the recoveries of all 14 target LMATs featuring different properties ranged from 83.5% to 96.0%. The limits of detection of most target compounds were within ≤3.000 ng/L with good precision (relative standard deviation ≤ 12.1%) and linearity (R2≥0.9916). Compared with off-line SPE methods, the proposed on-line SPE method has better recovery, sensitivity, repeatability, and throughput; in addition, the volume of seawater sample necessary to conduct determinations is greatly reduced in the present method. Finally, the method was applied to determine LMATs in actual seawater samples collected from the Bohai and South Yellow Seas of China in summer, and okadaic acid and pectenotoxin-2 were detected in all seawater samples. The highest concentration of ∑LMATs (22.23 ng/L) occurred in the coastal mariculture area of Shandong Province. Therefore, routine monitoring of LMATs in seawater of the coastal mariculture zone is necessary to prevent shellfish contamination especially in summer, and the proposed on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS method is a powerful way for direct and automatic detection of various LMATs in coastal mariculture area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiuming Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China
| | - Junhui Chen
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071, China; Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266590, China.
| | - Xiuping He
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071, China; Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266590, China
| | - Shuang Hao
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai, 264200, China
| | - Yuning Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China
| | - Xiaoling Zheng
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China
| | - Baodong Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071, China
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Pouil S, Clausing RJ, Metian M, Bustamante P, Dechraoui-Bottein MY. A study of the influence of brevetoxin exposure on trace element bioaccumulation in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2018; 192:250-256. [PMID: 29986316 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Marine organisms are exposed to and affected by a multitude of chemicals present in seawater and can accumulate in their tissues a wide range of contaminants as well as natural biotoxins associated with harmful algal blooms (HABs). Trace elements and biotoxins may modify physiological functions in exposed organisms, and studies have been conducted to better understand their respective kinetics and effects in marine species. Despite the increasing concern of concurrent toxic HABs and pollution events due to anthropogenic pressures and global change, very little information is available on their combined effects. Chemical interactions between biotoxins and trace elements have been reported, and exposure to certain biotoxins is known to modify ion transport pathways, suggesting that biotoxins have the potential to alter trace element uptake. Using specific and sensitive radiotracer techniques (radioligand receptor binding assay and γ-spectrometry), this laboratory study examined the influence of pre-exposure to the brevetoxins (PbTxs)-producing microalgae Karenia brevis on the bioaccumulation of selected non-essential (Cd) and essential (Co, Mn and Zn) trace elements in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis. PbTxs are a group of neurotoxins known to accumulate in bivalves but also to have lethal effects on a number of marine organisms including fish and mammals. We found that, over 23 days exposure to the radiotracers, the bioaccumulation of the dissolved essential trace elements Co, Mn and Zn in M. edulis was not significantly affected by pre-exposure to toxic K. brevis. In contrast, the uptake rate constant ku of Cd was significantly higher in the pre-exposed group (p < 0.05), likely caused by a decrease in mussel clearance rates after K. brevis exposure. These results suggest that the effects of algal toxin exposure on bioaccumulation of trace elements in mussels may be trace element-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Pouil
- International Atomic Energy Agency, Environment Laboratories (IAEA-EL), 4a Quai Antoine Ier, MC-98000, Monaco; Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - Rachel J Clausing
- International Atomic Energy Agency, Environment Laboratories (IAEA-EL), 4a Quai Antoine Ier, MC-98000, Monaco
| | - Marc Metian
- International Atomic Energy Agency, Environment Laboratories (IAEA-EL), 4a Quai Antoine Ier, MC-98000, Monaco.
| | - Paco Bustamante
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17000 La Rochelle, France
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8
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Shin C, Hwang JY, Yoon JH, Kim SH, Kang GJ. Simultaneous determination of neurotoxic shellfish toxins (brevetoxins) in commercial shellfish by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Aptamer-Based Biosensors to Detect Aquatic Phycotoxins and Cyanotoxins. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18072367. [PMID: 30037056 PMCID: PMC6068809 DOI: 10.3390/s18072367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Aptasensors have a great potential for environmental monitoring, particularly for real-time on-site detection of aquatic toxins produced by marine and freshwater microorganisms (cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, and diatoms), with several advantages over other biosensors that are worth considering. Freshwater monitoring is of vital importance for public health, in numerous human activities, and animal welfare, since these toxins may cause fatal intoxications. Similarly, in marine waters, very effective monitoring programs have been put in place in many countries to detect when toxins exceed established regulatory levels and accordingly enforce shellfish harvesting closures. Recent advances in the fields of aptamer selection, nanomaterials and communication technologies, offer a vast array of possibilities to develop new imaginative strategies to create improved, ultrasensitive, reliable and real-time devices, featuring unique characteristics to produce and amplify the signal. So far, not many strategies have been used to detect aquatic toxins, mostly limited to the optic and electrochemical sensors, the majority applied to detect microcystin-LR using a target-induced switching mode. The limits of detection of these aptasensors have been decreasing from the nM to the fM order of magnitude in the past 20 years. Aspects related to sensor components, performance, aptamers sequences, matrices analyzed and future perspectives, are considered and discussed.
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HPLC-HRMS Quantification of the Ichthyotoxin Karmitoxin from Karlodinium armiger. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15090278. [PMID: 28858210 PMCID: PMC5618417 DOI: 10.3390/md15090278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Being able to quantify ichthyotoxic metabolites from microalgae allows for the determination of ecologically-relevant concentrations that can be simulated in laboratory experiments, as well as to investigate bioaccumulation and degradation. Here, the ichthyotoxin karmitoxin, produced by Karlodinium armiger, was quantified in laboratory-grown cultures using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to electrospray ionisation high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HRMS). Prior to the quantification of karmitoxin, a standard of karmitoxin was purified from K. armiger cultures (80 L). The standard was quantified by fluorescent derivatisation using Waters AccQ-Fluor reagent and derivatised fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂ as standards, as each contain a primary amine. Various sample preparation methods for whole culture samples were assessed, including six different solid phase extraction substrates. During analysis of culture samples, MS source conditions were monitored with chloramphenicol and valinomycin as external standards over prolonged injection sequences (>12 h) and karmitoxin concentrations were determined using the response factor of a closely eluting iturin A2 internal standard. Using this method the limit of quantification was 0.11 μg·mL-1, and the limit of detection was found to be 0.03 μg·mL-1. Matrix effects were determined with the use of K. armiger cultures grown with 13C-labelled bicarbonate as the primary carbon source.
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Gonzalez-Romero R, Suarez-Ulloa V, Rodriguez-Casariego J, Garcia-Souto D, Diaz G, Smith A, Pasantes JJ, Rand G, Eirin-Lopez JM. Effects of Florida Red Tides on histone variant expression and DNA methylation in the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 186:196-204. [PMID: 28315825 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Massive algal proliferations known as Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) represent one of the most important threats to coastal areas. Among them, the so-called Florida Red Tides (FRTs, caused by blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and associated brevetoxins) are particularly detrimental in the southeastern U.S., causing high mortality rates and annual losses in excess of $40 million. The ability of marine organisms to cope with environmental stressors (including those produced during HABs) is influenced by genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, the latter resulting in phenotypic changes caused by heritable modifications in gene expression, without involving changes in the genetic (DNA) sequence. Yet, studies examining cause-effect relationships between environmental stressors, specific epigenetic mechanisms and subsequent responses are still lacking. The present work contributes to increase this knowledge by investigating the effects of Florida Red Tides on two types of mechanisms participating in the epigenetic memory of Eastern oysters: histone variants and DNA methylation. For that purpose, a HAB simulation was conducted in laboratory conditions, exposing oysters to increasing concentrations of K. brevis. The obtained results revealed, for the first time, the existence of H2A.X, H2A.Z and macroH2A genes in this organism, encoding histone variants potentially involved in the maintenance of genome integrity during responses to the genotoxic effect of brevetoxins. Additionally, an increase in H2A.X phosphorylation (γH2A.X, a marker of DNA damage) and a decrease in global DNA methylation were observed as the HAB simulation progressed. Overall, the present work provides a basis to better understand how epigenetic mechanisms participate in responses to environmental stress in marine invertebrates, opening new avenues to incorporate environmental epigenetics approaches into management and conservation programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Gonzalez-Romero
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Victoria Suarez-Ulloa
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Javier Rodriguez-Casariego
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA; Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Daniel Garcia-Souto
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Xenetica e Inmunoloxia, Universidade de Vigo, E-36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Gabriel Diaz
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Abraham Smith
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Juan Jose Pasantes
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Xenetica e Inmunoloxia, Universidade de Vigo, E-36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Gary Rand
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment Laboratory, Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | - Jose M Eirin-Lopez
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
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Tian RY, Lin C, Yu SY, Gong S, Hu P, Li YS, Wu ZC, Gao Y, Zhou Y, Liu ZS, Ren HL, Lu SY. Preparation of a Specific ssDNA Aptamer for Brevetoxin-2 Using SELEX. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2016; 2016:9241860. [PMID: 28058132 PMCID: PMC5183765 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9241860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The existing assays for detecting brevetoxin (BTX) depend on expensive equipment with a professional operator or on an antibody with limited stability, which requires complex processes, a high cost, and a considerable amount of time. The development of an alternative detection probe is another promising research direction. This paper reports the use of aptamers binding to BTX-2 in an analytical assay using the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). After 12 rounds of selection, the secondary structures of 25 sequences were predicted. Compared to other aptamers, Bap5 has relatively high affinity with the lowest dissociation constant of 4.83 μM, and IC50 is 73.81 ng mL-1. A good linear regression formula of y = 30.688x - 7.329 with a coefficient correlation of R2 = 0.9798 was obtained using a biotin-avidin ELISA. Moreover, there is no cross-reaction with the detected marine toxins, except for BTX-2. Thus, Bap5 has potential to detect BTX-2 in shellfish in the future as a substitute for the recognition probe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Yun Tian
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Chao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
- Emergency Department, The Eastern Division, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Shi-Yu Yu
- Fuqing Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Port District, Qingrong Road, Fuqing, Fujian 350300, China
| | - Sheng Gong
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Pan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yan-Song Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Zong-Cheng Wu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Zeng-Shan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Hong-Lin Ren
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Shi-Ying Lu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
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McCall JR, Elliott EA, Bourdelais AJ. A new cytotoxicity assay for brevetoxins using fluorescence microscopy. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:4868-82. [PMID: 25251033 PMCID: PMC4178485 DOI: 10.3390/md12094868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brevetoxins are a family of ladder-framed polyether toxins produced during blooms of the marine dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis. Consumption of shellfish or finfish exposed to brevetoxins can lead to the development of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. The toxic effects of brevetoxins are believed to be due to the activation of voltage-sensitive sodium channels in cell membranes. The traditional cytotoxicity assay for detection of brevetoxins uses the Neuro-2A cell line, which must first be treated with the neurotoxins, ouabain and veratridine, in order to become sensitive to brevetoxins. In this study, we demonstrate several drawbacks of the Neuro-2A assay, which include variability for the EC50 values for brevetoxin and non-linear triphasic dose response curves. Ouabain/veratridine-treated Neuro-2A cells do not show a typical sigmoidal dose response curve in response to brevetoxin, but rather, have a polynomial shaped curve, which makes calculating EC50 values highly variable. We describe a new fluorescence live cell imaging model, which allows for accurate calculation of cytotoxicity via nuclear staining and additional measurement of other viability parameters depending on which aspect of the cell is stained. In addition, the SJCRH30 cell line shows promise as an alternative to Neuro-2A cells for testing brevetoxins without the need for ouabain and veratridine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R McCall
- UNCW Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA.
| | - Elizabeth A Elliott
- UNCW Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA.
| | - Andrea J Bourdelais
- UNCW Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA.
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Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Fraga M, Rodríguez LP, Botana LM. Innovative detection methods for aquatic algal toxins and their presence in the food chain. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7719-32. [PMID: 23820950 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7108-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Detection of aquatic algal toxins has become critical for the protection of human health. During the last 5 years, techniques such as optical, electrochemical, and piezoelectric biosensors or fluorescent-microsphere-based assays have been developed for the detection of aquatic algal toxins, in addition to optimization of existing techniques, to achieve higher sensitivities, specificity, and speed or multidetection. New toxins have also been incorporated in the array of analytical and biological methods. The impact of the former innovation on this field is highlighted by recent changes in legal regulations, with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry becoming the official reference method for marine lipophilic toxins and replacing the mouse bioassay in many countries. This review summarizes the large international effort to provide routine testing laboratories with fast, sensitive, high-throughput, multitoxin, validated methods for the screening of seafood, algae, and water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain,
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Twiner MJ, Flewelling LJ, Fire SE, Bowen-Stevens SR, Gaydos JK, Johnson CK, Landsberg JH, Leighfield TA, Mase-Guthrie B, Schwacke L, Van Dolah FM, Wang Z, Rowles TK. Comparative analysis of three brevetoxin-associated bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) mortality events in the Florida Panhandle region (USA). PLoS One 2012; 7:e42974. [PMID: 22916189 PMCID: PMC3419745 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
In the Florida Panhandle region, bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) have been highly susceptible to large-scale unusual mortality events (UMEs) that may have been the result of exposure to blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and its neurotoxin, brevetoxin (PbTx). Between 1999 and 2006, three bottlenose dolphin UMEs occurred in the Florida Panhandle region. The primary objective of this study was to determine if these mortality events were due to brevetoxicosis. Analysis of over 850 samples from 105 bottlenose dolphins and associated prey items were analyzed for algal toxins and have provided details on tissue distribution, pathways of trophic transfer, and spatial-temporal trends for each mortality event. In 1999/2000, 152 dolphins died following extensive K. brevis blooms and brevetoxin was detected in 52% of animals tested at concentrations up to 500 ng/g. In 2004, 105 bottlenose dolphins died in the absence of an identifiable K. brevis bloom; however, 100% of the tested animals were positive for brevetoxin at concentrations up to 29,126 ng/mL. Dolphin stomach contents frequently consisted of brevetoxin-contaminated menhaden. In addition, another potentially toxigenic algal species, Pseudo-nitzschia, was present and low levels of the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA) were detected in nearly all tested animals (89%). In 2005/2006, 90 bottlenose dolphins died that were initially coincident with high densities of K. brevis. Most (93%) of the tested animals were positive for brevetoxin at concentrations up to 2,724 ng/mL. No DA was detected in these animals despite the presence of an intense DA-producing Pseudo-nitzschia bloom. In contrast to the absence or very low levels of brevetoxins measured in live dolphins, and those stranding in the absence of a K. brevis bloom, these data, taken together with the absence of any other obvious pathology, provide strong evidence that brevetoxin was the causative agent involved in these bottlenose dolphin mortality events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Twiner
- Marine Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
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Fleming LE, Kirkpatrick B, Backer LC, Walsh CJ, Nierenberg K, Clark J, Reich A, Hollenbeck J, Benson J, Cheng YS, Naar J, Pierce R, Bourdelais AJ, Abraham WM, Kirkpatrick G, Zaias J, Wanner A, Mendes E, Shalat S, Hoagland P, Stephan W, Bean J, Watkins S, Clarke T, Byrne M, Baden DG. Review of Florida Red Tide and Human Health Effects. HARMFUL ALGAE 2011; 10:224-233. [PMID: 21218152 PMCID: PMC3014608 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2010.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature describing research performed over the past decade on the known and possible exposures and human health effects associated with Florida red tides. These harmful algal blooms are caused by the dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, and similar organisms, all of which produce a suite of natural toxins known as brevetoxins. Florida red tide research has benefited from a consistently funded, long term research program, that has allowed an interdisciplinary team of researchers to focus their attention on this specific environmental issue-one that is critically important to Gulf of Mexico and other coastal communities. This long-term interdisciplinary approach has allowed the team to engage the local community, identify measures to protect public health, take emerging technologies into the field, forge advances in natural products chemistry, and develop a valuable pharmaceutical product. The Review includes a brief discussion of the Florida red tide organisms and their toxins, and then focuses on the effects of these toxins on animals and humans, including how these effects predict what we might expect to see in exposed people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lora E Fleming
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL, 33149
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Tang D, Tang J, Su B, Chen G. Gold nanoparticles-decorated amine-terminated poly(amidoamine) dendrimer for sensitive electrochemical immunoassay of brevetoxins in food samples. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 26:2090-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Revised: 08/24/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Kole PL, Venkatesh G, Kotecha J, Sheshala R. Recent advances in sample preparation techniques for effective bioanalytical methods. Biomed Chromatogr 2010; 25:199-217. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 10/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Schwacke LH, Twiner MJ, De Guise S, Balmer BC, Wells RS, Townsend FI, Rotstein DC, Varela RA, Hansen LJ, Zolman ES, Spradlin TR, Levin M, Leibrecht H, Wang Z, Rowles TK. Eosinophilia and biotoxin exposure in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from a coastal area impacted by repeated mortality events. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2010; 110:548-555. [PMID: 20537621 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2009] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 05/07/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) inhabiting coastal waters in the northern Gulf of Mexico have been impacted by recurrent unusual mortality events over the past few decades. Several of these mortality events along the Florida panhandle have been tentatively attributed to poisoning from brevetoxin produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. While dolphins in other regions of the Florida coast are often exposed to K. brevis blooms, large-scale dolphin mortality events are relatively rare and the frequency and magnitude of die-offs along the Panhandle raise concern for the apparent vulnerability of dolphins in this region. We report results from dolphin health assessments conducted near St. Joseph Bay, Florida, an area impacted by 3 unusual die-offs within a 7-year time span. An eosinophilia syndrome, manifested as an elevated blood eosinophil count without obvious cause, was observed in 23% of sampled dolphins. Elevated eosinophil counts were associated with decreased T-lymphocyte proliferation and increased neutrophil phagocytosis. In addition, indication of chronic low-level exposure to another algal toxin, domoic acid produced by the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia spp., was determined. Previous studies of other marine mammal populations exposed recurrently to Pseudo-nitzschia blooms have suggested a possible link between the eosinophilia and domoic acid exposure. While the chronic eosinophilia syndrome could over the long-term produce organ damage and alter immunological status and thereby increase vulnerability to other challenges, the significance of the high prevalence of the syndrome to the observed mortality events in the St. Joseph Bay area is unclear. Nonetheless, the unusual immunological findings and concurrent evidence of domoic acid exposure in this sentinel marine species suggest a need for further investigation to elucidate potential links between chronic, low-level exposure to algal toxins and immune health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori H Schwacke
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Center for Human Health Risks, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, USA.
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Biological methods for marine toxin detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:1673-81. [PMID: 20458470 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3782-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2010] [Revised: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/23/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of marine toxins in seafood poses a health risk to human consumers which has prompted the regulation of the maximum content of marine toxins in seafood in the legislations of many countries. Most marine toxin groups are detected by animal bioassays worldwide. Although this method has well known ethical and technical drawbacks, it is the official detection method for all regulated phycotoxins except domoic acid. Much effort by the scientific and regulatory communities has been focused on the development of alternative techniques that enable the substitution or reduction of bioassays; some of these have recently been included in the official detection method list. During the last two decades several biological methods including use of biosensors have been adapted for detection of marine toxins. The main advances in marine toxin detection using this kind of technique are reviewed. Biological methods offer interesting possibilities for reduction of the number of biosassays and a very promising future of new developments.
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Zhou Y, Li YS, Pan FG, Zhang YY, Lu SY, Ren HL, Li ZH, Liu ZS, Zhang JH. Development of a new monoclonal antibody based direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of brevetoxins in food samples. Food Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Use of biosensors as alternatives to current regulatory methods for marine biotoxins. SENSORS 2009; 9:9414-43. [PMID: 22291571 PMCID: PMC3260648 DOI: 10.3390/s91109414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Revised: 10/27/2009] [Accepted: 10/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Marine toxins are currently monitored by means of a bioassay that requires the use of many mice, which poses a technical and ethical problem in many countries. With the exception of domoic acid, there is a legal requirement for the presence of other toxins (yessotoxin, saxitoxin and analogs, okadaic acid and analogs, pectenotoxins and azaspiracids) in seafood to be controlled by bioassay, but other toxins, such as palytoxin, cyclic imines, ciguatera and tetrodotoxin are potentially present in European food and there are no legal requirements or technical approaches available to identify their presence. The need for alternative methods to the bioassay is clearly important, and biosensors have become in recent years a feasible alternative to animal sacrifice. This review will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using biosensors as alternatives to animal assays for marine toxins, with particular focus on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology.
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Sotka EE, McCarty A, Monroe EA, Oakman N, Van Dolah FM. Benthic herbivores are not deterred by brevetoxins produced by the red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. J Chem Ecol 2009; 35:851-9. [PMID: 19590925 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-009-9658-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Revised: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Gulf of Mexico blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis produce neurotoxic cyclic polyethers called brevetoxins. During and after a red tide bloom in southwestern Florida, K. brevis cells lyse and release brevetoxins, which then sink to the benthos and coat the surfaces of seagrasses and their epiphytes. We tested the possibility that these brevetoxin-laden foods alter the feeding behavior and fitness of a common benthic herbivore within Floridean seagrass beds, the amphipod Ampithoe longimana. We demonstrated that coating foods with K. brevis extracts that contain brevetoxins at post-bloom concentrations (1 microg g(-1) drymass) does not alter the feeding rates of Florida nor North Carolina populations of A. longimana, although a slight deterrent effect was found at eight and ten-fold greater concentrations. During a series of feeding choice assays, A. longimana tended not to be deterred by foods coated with K. brevis extracts nor with the purified brevetoxins PbTx-2 and PbTx-3. Florida juveniles isolated with either extract-coated or control foods for 10 days did not differ in survivorship nor growth. A similar lack of feeding response to brevetoxin-laden foods also was exhibited by two other generalist herbivores of the southeastern United States, the amphipod A. valida and the urchin Arbacia punctulata. Given that benthic mesograzers constitute a significant portion of the diet for the juvenile stage of many nearshore fishes, we hypothesize that the ability of some mesograzers to feed on and retain brevetoxins in their bodies indicates that mesograzers may represent an important route of vertical transmission of brevetoxins through higher trophic levels within Gulf of Mexico estuaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik E Sotka
- Grice Marine Laboratory and Department of Biology, College of Charleston, 205 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, USA.
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Gerssen A, Mulder PP, McElhinney MA, de Boer J. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for the detection of marine lipophilic toxins under alkaline conditions. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:1421-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.12.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2008] [Revised: 09/29/2008] [Accepted: 12/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:431-55. [PMID: 19005578 PMCID: PMC2579735 DOI: 10.3390/md20080021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2008] [Revised: 06/17/2008] [Accepted: 06/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) is caused by consumption of molluscan shellfish contaminated with brevetoxins primarily produced by the dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis. Blooms of K. brevis, called Florida red tide, occur frequently along the Gulf of Mexico. Many shellfish beds in the US (and other nations) are routinely monitored for presence of K. brevis and other brevetoxin-producing organisms. As a result, few NSP cases are reported annually from the US. However, infrequent larger outbreaks do occur. Cases are usually associated with recreationally-harvested shellfish collected during or post red tide blooms. Brevetoxins are neurotoxins which activate voltage-sensitive sodium channels causing sodium influx and nerve membrane depolarization. No fatalities have been reported, but hospitalizations occur. NSP involves a cluster of gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms: nausea and vomiting, paresthesias of the mouth, lips and tongue as well as distal paresthesias, ataxia, slurred speech and dizziness. Neurological symptoms can progress to partial paralysis; respiratory distress has been recorded. Recent research has implicated new species of harmful algal bloom organisms which produce brevetoxins, identified additional marine species which accumulate brevetoxins, and has provided additional information on the toxicity and analysis of brevetoxins. A review of the known epidemiology and recommendations for improved NSP prevention are presented.
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Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning: A Review on the Chemistry, Ecology, and Toxicology with an Emphasis on Human Health Impacts. Mar Drugs 2008. [DOI: 10.3390/md6020039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning: a review on the chemistry, ecology, and toxicology with an emphasis on human health impacts. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:39-72. [PMID: 18728760 PMCID: PMC2525481 DOI: 10.3390/md20080004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2007] [Revised: 02/21/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2008] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are polyether marine toxins that accumulate in various shellfish species and have been associated with severe gastrointestinal human intoxications since 1995. This toxin class has since been reported from several countries, including Morocco and much of western Europe. A regulatory limit of 160 μg AZA/kg whole shellfish flesh was established by the EU in order to protect human health; however, in some cases, AZA concentrations far exceed the action level. Herein we discuss recent advances on the chemistry of various AZA analogs, review the ecology of AZAs, including the putative progenitor algal species, collectively interpret the in vitro and in vivo data on the toxicology of AZAs relating to human health issues, and outline the European legislature associated with AZAs.
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Roth PB, Twiner MJ, Wang Z, Bottein Dechraoui MY, Doucette GJ. Fate and distribution of brevetoxin (PbTx) following lysis of Karenia brevis by algicidal bacteria, including analysis of open A-ring derivatives. Toxicon 2007; 50:1175-91. [PMID: 17905402 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Revised: 08/06/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Flavobacteriaceae (strain S03) and Cytophaga sp. (strain 41-DBG2) are algicidal bacteria active against the brevetoxin (PbTx)-producing, red tide dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis. Little is known about the fate of PbTx associated with K. brevis cells following attack by such bacteria. The fate and distribution of PbTx in K. brevis cultures exposed to these algicidal strains were thus examined by receptor binding assay and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) in three size fractions (>5, 0.22-5, <0.22microm) over a 2-week time course. In control cultures, brevetoxin concentrations in the >5microm particulate size fraction correlated with changes in cell density, whereas significant increases in dissolved (i.e., <0.22microm) toxin were observed in the later stages of culture growth. Exposure of K. brevis to either of the two algicidal bacteria tested caused cell lysis, coinciding with a rapid decline in the >5microm PbTX size fraction and a simultaneous release of dissolved toxin into the growth medium. Upon cell lysis, dissolved brevetoxin accounted for ca. 60% of total toxin and consisted of 51-82% open A-ring derivatives. Open A-ring PbTx-2 and PbTx-3 derivatives bound with lower affinity (approximately 22- and 57-fold, respectively) to voltage-gated sodium channels and were considerably less cytotoxic (86- and 142-fold, respectively) to N2A cells than their individual parent toxins (i.e., PbTx-2 and PbTx-3). These novel findings of changes in PbTx size-fractioned distribution and overall reduction in K. brevis toxicity following attack by algicidal bacteria improve our understanding of potential trophic transfer routes and the fate of PbTx during red tide events. Moreover, this information will be important to consider when evaluating the potential role of algicidal bacteria in harmful algal bloom (HAB) management strategies involving control of bloom populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia B Roth
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, NOAA/National Ocean Service, 219 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, USA
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