Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy

Amphiphilic Poly(ethylene glycol)-Cholesterol Conjugate: Stable Micellar Formulation for Efficient Loading and Effective Intracellular Delivery of Curcumin

A biodegradable and biocompatible micellar-based drug delivery system was developed using amphiphilic methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-cholesterol (C1) and poly(ethylene glycol)-S-S-cholesterol (C2) conjugates and applied to the tumoral release of the water-insoluble drug curcumin. These synthesized surfactants C1 and C2 were found to form stable micelles (CMC ∼ 6 μM) and an average hydrodynamic size of around 20-25 nm. The curcumin-encapsulated C1 micelle was formulated by a solvent evaporation method. A very high drug encapsulation efficiency (EE) of ∼88% and a drug loading (DL) capacity of ∼9% were determined for both the micelles. From the reduced rate of curcumin degradation and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, the stability of the curcumin-loaded C1 micelle was found to be higher than that of the unloaded micelle, which confirmed a more compact structural arrangement in the presence of hydrophobic curcumin. A pH-sensitive release of curcumin (faster release with decrease in pH) was observed for the curcumin-loaded C1 micelle, attributed to the diffusion and relaxation/erosion of micellar aggregates. To achieve reduction environment-sensitive drug release, a disulfide (S-S) chemical linkage-incorporated mPEG-cholesterol conjugate (C2) was synthesized, which was found to show glutathione-responsive faster release of curcumin. The in vitro experiments carried out in SCC9 oral cancer cell lines showed that the blank C1 and C2 micelles were noncytotoxic at lower concentrations (<50 μM), while curcumin-loaded C1 and C2 micelles inhibited the proliferation and promoted the apoptosis. An increased in vitro cytotoxicity was observed for curcumin-loaded micelles compared to that of curcumin itself, demonstrating a better cell penetration efficacy of the micelle. These results were further supplemented by the in vivo anticancer analysis of the curcumin-loaded C1 and C2 micellar formulations using the mice xenograft model. Notably, curcumin-loaded C2 micelles showed a significantly stronger apoptotic effect in xenograft mice compared to curcumin-loaded C1 micelles, indicating the GSH environment-sensitive drug release and improved bioavailability. In conclusion, the mPEG-cholesterol C1 and C2 micellar system with the advantages of small size, high encapsulation efficiency, high drug loading, simple preparing technique, biocompatibility, and good in vitro and in vivo performance may have the potential to be used as a drug carrier for sustained and stimuli-responsive release of the hydrophobic drug curcumin.

Doxorubicin and 4-nitrochalcone loaded in beeswax-based nanostructured lipid carriers: In vitro antitumoral screening and evaluation of synergistic effect on HepG-2 cells

Cancer is the second most deadly disease worldwide, and the most traditional approaches such as chemotherapy still face limitations associated to drug dosage and off-target side effects. To address these issues, we propose the simultaneous administration of 4-Nitrochalcone (4NC) and Doxorubicin (DOX) using beeswax based nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). The co-encapsulation of 4NC and DOX in the beeswax based NLCs was performed using the water/oil/water double emulsion technique in association with the melt dispersion approach. The system composed by semi-spherical NLCs with an average diameter around 200 nm and narrow size distribution, displayed colloidal stability before and after redispersion, keeping the zeta potential below -30 mV. The antitumor activity of the nanoparticles was screened on different tumor cell lines, and the induced cellular death and internal ROS levels were analyzed on hepatocarcinoma cells, which were found to be more affected by the combination of 4NC and DOX. The results indicated that 4NC + DOX-NCLs could promote cytotoxicity and oxidative damage-mediated apoptosis in a HepG-2 cell line.

Dendrimer-mediated targeting of angiogenic biomarkers: therapeutic intervention against cancer

INTRODUCTION

Development of novel vascular networks is a fundamental requirement for tumor growth and progression. In the last decade, biomarkers and underlying molecular pathways of angiogenesis have been intensely investigated to disrupt the initiation and progression of tumor angiogenesis. However, the clinical applications of anti-angiogenic agents are constrained due to toxic side effects, acquired drug resistance, and unavailability of validated biomarkers.

AREA COVERED

This review discusses the development of dendrimeric nanocarriers that could be a promising domain to explore for the eradication of current challenges associated with angiogenesis-based cancer therapy. Novel drug-delivery approaches with subtle readouts and better understanding of molecular mechanisms have revealed that dendrimers comprise innate anti-angiogenic activity and incorporation of anti-angiogenic agents or gene-silencing RNA could lead to synergistic anti-angiogenic and anticancer effects with reduced side effects.

EXPERT OPINION

Dendrimer-mediated targeting of angiogenic biomarkers has efficiently led to the vascular normalization, and rational linking of dendrimers with anti-angiogenic agent or siRNA or both might be a potential area to eradicate the current challenges of angiogenesis-based cancer therapy. However, drawbacks associated with the dendrimers-mediated targeting of angiogenic biomarkers, such as poor stability or small expression of these biomarkers on the normal cells, limit their application at market scale.

Role of Angiogenesis and Its Biomarkers in Development of Targeted Tumor Therapies

Angiogenesis plays a significant role in the human body, from wound healing to tumor progression. "Angiogenic switch" indicates a time-restricted event where the imbalance between pro- and antiangiogenic factors results in the transition from prevascular hyperplasia to outgrowing vascularized tumor, which eventually leads to the malignant cancer progression. In the last decade, molecular players, i.e., angiogenic biomarkers and underlying molecular pathways involved in tumorigenesis, have been intensely investigated. Disrupting the initiation and halting the progression of angiogenesis by targeting these biomarkers and molecular pathways has been considered as a potential treatment approach for tumor angiogenesis. This review discusses the currently known biomarkers and available antiangiogenic therapies in cancer, i.e., monoclonal antibodies, aptamers, small molecular inhibitors, miRNAs, siRNAs, angiostatin, endostatin, and melatonin analogues, either approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration or currently under clinical and preclinical investigations.

Advances in buccal and oral delivery of insulin

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic endocrine disease characterized by chronic hyperglycemia with disturbances in metabolic processes, such as those related to carbohydrates, fat, and protein. There are two main types of this disease: type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Insulin therapy is pivotal to the management of diabetes. Over the last two decades, many routes of administration, including nasal, pulmonary, rectal, transdermal, buccal, and ocular, have been investigated. Nevertheless, subcutaneous parenteral administration is still the most common route for insulin therapy. To overcome poor bioavailability and the barriers to oral insulin absorption, novel approaches in the field of oral drug delivery and administration have been brought about by the coalescence of different branches of nanoscience and nanotechnology, such as nanomedicine, nano-biochemistry, and nano-pharmacy. Novel drug delivery systems, including nanoparticles, nano-platforms, and nanocarriers, have been suggested. The objective of this review is to provide an update on the various promising approaches that have been explored and evaluated for the safe and efficient oral and buccal administration of insulin.

Progresses in Nano-Enabled Platforms for the Treatment of Vaginal Disorders

BACKGROUND

The most common vaginal disorders are within the uterus. According to the latest statistics, vaginal disorders occur in 50% to 60% of females. Although curative treatments rely on surgical therapy, still first-line treatment is a non invasive drug. Conventional therapies are available in the oral and parenteral route, leading to nonspecific targeting, which can cause dose-related side effects. Vaginal disorders are localized uterine disorders in which intrauterine delivery via the vaginal site is deemed the preferable route to mitigate clinical drug delivery limitations.

OBJECTIVE

This study emphasizes the progress of site-specific and controlled delivery of therapeutics in the treatment of vaginal disorders and systemic adverse effects as well as the therapeutic efficacy.

METHODS

Related research reports and patents associated with topics are collected, utilized, and summarized the key findings.

RESULTS

The comprehensive literature study and patents like (US 9393216 B2), (JP6672370B2), and (WO2018041268A1) indicated that nanocarriers are effective above traditional treatments and have some significant efficacy with novelty.

CONCLUSION

Nowadays, site-specific and controlled delivery of therapeutics for the treatment of vaginal disorders is essential to prevent systemic adverse effects and therapeutic efficacy would be more effective. Nanocarriers have therefore been used to bypass the problems associated with traditional delivery systems for the vaginal disorder.

Near-infrared upconversion multimodal nanoparticles for targeted radionuclide therapy of breast cancer lymphatic metastases

The theranostics of lymph node metastasis has always been one of the major obstacles to defeating breast cancer and an important decisive factor in the prognosis of patients. Herein, we design NaGdF₄:Yb,Tm@NaLuF₄ upconversion nanoparticles with PEG and anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody (trastuzumab, Herceptin) (NP-mAb), the delivery of NP-mAb through the lymphatic system allows for effective targeting and accumulation in lymphatic metastasis. Combination of radionuclides ⁶⁸Ga and ¹⁷⁷Lu could be chelated by the bisphosphate groups of NP-mAb. The obtained nanoprobe (NP-mAb) and nanonuclear drug (⁶⁸Ga-NP-mAb or ¹⁷⁷Lu-NP-mAb) exhibited excellent stability and show high accumulation and prolong retention in the lymph node metastasis after intratumoral injection into the foot pad by near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Utilizing the β-rays released by ¹⁷⁷Lu, ¹⁷⁷Lu-NP-mAb could not only decrease the incidence of lymph node metastasis, but also significantly decrease the volumes of lymph node metastasis. Additionally, ¹⁷⁷Lu-NP-mAb induce no obvious toxicity to treated mice through blood routine, liver and kidney function assay. Therefore, nanoprobe and nanonuclear drug we designed could be acted as excellent theranostics agents for lymph node metastasis, providing potential alternatives diagnose and treatment option for lymph node metastasis.

Process design and economic assessment of large-scale production of molybdenum disulfide nanomaterials

The design of large-scale nanomaterial production is nowadays a major research topic that requires efficient tools for appropriate decision-making and process simulation is considered among the rational approach to address such difficult issue. The present study deals with process design and economic assessment of Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) nanomaterials production at large-scale via solvothermal method basing on our previous bench scale results. The commercial simulator Aspen Plus was used for process modelling and assuming a plant capacity of 100 tonnes/year. The simulation results were used to perform the cost assessment and profitability analysis while taking into account two relevant cases with (Recycle Case) and without recycling of Ethylenediamine and Hydrazine (Base Case). Note that for the technological and economical assessment the effluent treatment system was not taken into account. The total capital investment was estimated to be ca.14.3 M$ for the base case and ca. 17.4 M$ for recycle case, while the total operating costs were about 2945 $ for the base case and 503 $ for the recycle case for the production of 1 kg of MoS2. Thus, in addition to intrinsic advantages associated with the easier preparation and lower environmental impact of solvothermal method, larger production with recycling option can make the process more economically profitable.

Opportunities in combinational chemo-immunotherapy for breast cancer using nanotechnology: an emerging landscape

INTRODUCTION

Breast carcinoma (BC) is one of the most frequent causes of cancer-related death among women, which is due to the poor response to conventional therapy. There are several complications associated with monotherapy for cancer, such as cytotoxicity to normal cells, multidrug resistance (MDR), side effects, and limited applications. To overcome these challenges, a combination of chemotherapy and immunotherapy (monoclonal antibodies, anticancer vaccines, checkpoint inhibitors, and cytokines) has been introduced. Drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanotechnology have more applications in BC treatment owing to their controlled and targeted drug release with lower toxicity and reduced adverse drug effects. Several nanocarriers, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, dendrimers, and micelles, have been used for the effective delivery of drugs.

AREAS COVERED

This article presents opportunities and challenges in BC treatment, the rationale for cancer immunotherapy, and several combinational approaches with their applications for BC treatment.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanotechnology can be used for the early prognosis and cure of BC. Several novel and targeted DDSs have been developed to enhance the efficacy of anticancer drugs. This article aims to understand new strategies for the treatment of BC and the appropriate design of nanocarriers used as a combinational DDS.

Drug delivery systems for cancer treatment: a review of marine-derived polysaccharides

Abstract:

Cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation and the spread of cells to other tissues and remains one of the worldwide problems waiting to be solved. There are various treatment strategies for cancer, such as chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, although it varies according to its type and stage. Many chemotherapeutic agents have limited clinical use due to lack of efficacy, off-target toxicity, metabolic instability, or poor pharmacokinetics. One possible solution to this high rate of clinical failure is to design drug delivery systems that deliver drugs in a controlled and specific manner and are not toxic to normal cells. Marine systems contain biodiversity, including components and materials that can be used in biomedical applications and therapy. Biomaterials such as chitin, chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan, hyaluronan, agarose, and ulvan obtained from marine organisms have found use in DDSs today. These polysaccharides are biocompatible, non-toxic, biodegradable, and cost-effective, making them ideal raw materials for increasingly complex DDSs with a potentially regulated release. In this review, the contributions of polysaccharides from the marine environment to the development of anticancer drugs in DDSs will be discussed.

Nanomaterial Probes for Nuclear Imaging

Nuclear imaging is a powerful non-invasive imaging technique that is rapidly developing in medical theranostics. Nuclear imaging requires radiolabeling isotopes for non-invasive imaging through the radioactive decay emission of the radionuclide. Nuclear imaging probes, commonly known as radiotracers, are radioisotope-labeled small molecules. Nanomaterials have shown potential as nuclear imaging probes for theranostic applications. By modifying the surface of nanomaterials, multifunctional radio-labeled nanomaterials can be obtained for in vivo biodistribution and targeting in initial animal imaging studies. Various surface modification strategies have been developed, and targeting moieties have been attached to the nanomaterials to render biocompatibility and enable specific targeting. Through integration of complementary imaging probes to a single nanoparticulate, multimodal molecular imaging can be performed as images with high sensitivity, resolution, and specificity. In this review, nanomaterial nuclear imaging probes including inorganic nanomaterials such as quantum dots (QDs), organic nanomaterials such as liposomes, and exosomes are summarized. These new developments in nanomaterials are expected to introduce a paradigm shift in nuclear imaging, thereby creating new opportunities for theranostic medical imaging tools.

Development of nanotechnology-mediated precision radiotherapy for anti-metastasis and radioprotection

Radiotherapy (RT), including external beam RT and internal radiation therapy, uses high-energy ionizing radiation to kill tumor cells.

High-dose vitamin D metabolite delivery inhibits breast cancer metastasis

Besides its well-known benefits on human health, calcitriol, the hormonally active form of vitamin D3, has been being evaluated in clinical trials as an anticancer agent. However, currently available results are contradictory and not fundamentally deciphered. To the best of our knowledge, hypercalcemia caused by high-dose calcitriol administration and its low bioavailability limit its anticancer investigations and translations. Here, we show that the one-step self-assembly of calcitriol and amphiphilic cholesterol-based conjugates leads to the formation of a stable minimalist micellar nanosystem. When administered to mice, this nanosystem demonstrates high calcitriol doses in breast tumor cells, significant tumor growth inhibition and antimetastasis capability, as well as good biocompatibility. We further reveal that the underlying molecular antimetastatic mechanisms involve downregulation of proteins facilitating metastasis and upregulation of paxillin, the key protein of focal adhesion, in primary tumors.

Surface functionalized biomimetic bioreactors enable the targeted starvation-chemotherapy to glioma

Altering the glucose supply and the metabolic pathways would be an intriguing strategy in starvation therapy toward cancers. Nevertheless, starvation therapy alone could be inadequate to eliminate tumor cells completely. Herein, a multifunctional bioreactor was fabricated for synergistic starvation-chemotherapy through embedding glucose oxidase (GOx) and doxorubicin (DOX) in the tumor targeting ligands (RGD) modified red blood cell membrane camouflaged metal-organic framework (MOF) nanoparticle (denoted as RGD-mGZD). Owing to the remarkable biointerfacing property, the designed RGD-mGZD could not only possess enhanced blood retention time inherited from red blood cells, but also preferentially target the tumor site after the modification with RGD peptide. Once the bioreactor reached the desired region, GOx promptly consumed the intratumoral glucose and oxygen to starve cancer cells for robust starvation therapy. More importantly, the aggravated acidic microenvironment at the tumor region was found to induce the decomposition of the MOF structure, thus triggering the release of DOX for reinforced chemotherapy. This bioreactor would further prompt the development of synergistic patterns toward cancer treatment in a spatiotemporally controlled manner.

Molecular mechanism of shikonin inhibiting tumor growth and potential application in cancer treatment

Shikonin is one of the major bioactive components of Lithospermum erythrorhizon. It has a good killing effect in a variety of tumor cells. Its antitumor effect involves multiple targets and pathways and has received extensive attention and study in recent years. In this review, we systematically review recent progress in determining the antitumor mechanism of shikonin and its derivatives, specifically their induction of reactive oxygen species production, inhibition of EGFR and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation, inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis and necroptosis. We also discuss the application of nanoparticles loaded with shikonin in the targeted therapy of various cancers. Finally, we suggest new strategies for the clinical application of shikonin and its derivatives.

Host-cell-assisted construction of a folate-engineered nanocarrier based on viral light particles for targeted cancer therapy

Targeted cancer therapy has aroused the broad interest of researchers due to its accuracy in specific tumor targeting and its few side effects on normal cells. In the last decades, oncolytic viral light particles (L-particles) have been transformed into smart nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery. However, these L-particles, similar to the oncolytic viruses that they are derived from, can only recognize tumor cells expressing corresponding receptors, severely limiting their universal application. Although modification of targeting agents onto their envelope can overcome this limitation, it is still a great challenge to do so without interfering with their biofunction since the envelope is fragile. Herein, a host-cell-assisted strategy is proposed to construct folate-engineered nanocarriers (F-L-particles) with their biofunctions maintained to the largest extent. The F-L-particles were further multi-functionalized by encapsulating ultrasmall near-infrared quantum dots and antitumor drugs in them for tumor real-time imaging and therapy. Such a moderate, efficient and convenient cell-based strategy facilitates the development and widespread application of these bio-nanocarriers in the field of targeted cancer therapy, and drives the interdisciplinary studies of nanotechnology, chemistry, and virology.

Functionalized Nanoparticles Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages as Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a central role in regulating antitumor immune responses. As an important part of the TME, alternatively activated type 2 (M2) macrophages drive the development of primary and secondary tumors by promoting tumor cell proliferation, tumor angiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling and overall immunosuppression. Immunotherapy approaches targeting tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in order to reduce the immunosuppressive state in the TME have received great attention. Although these methods hold great potential for the treatment of several cancers, they also face some limitations, such as the fast degradation rate of drugs and drug-induced cytotoxicity of organs and tissues. Nanomedicine formulations that prevent TAM signaling and recruitment to the TME or deplete M2 TAMs to reduce tumor growth and metastasis represent encouraging novel strategies in cancer therapy. They allow the specific delivery of antitumor drugs to the tumor area, thereby reducing side effects associated with systemic application. In this review, we give an overview of TAM biology and the current state of nanomedicines that target M2 macrophages in the course of cancer immunotherapy, with a specific focus on nanoparticles (NPs). We summarize how different types of NPs target M2 TAMs, and how the physicochemical properties of NPs (size, shape, charge and targeting ligands) influence NP uptake by TAMs in vitro and in vivo in the TME. Furthermore, we provide a comparative analysis of passive and active NP-based TAM-targeting strategies and discuss their therapeutic potential.

Targeting neurons in the tumor microenvironment with bupivacaine nanoparticles reduces breast cancer progression and metastases

Neurons within the tumor microenvironment promote cancer progression; thus, their local targeting has potential clinical benefits. We designed PEGylated lipid nanoparticles loaded with a non-opioid analgesic, bupivacaine, to target neurons within breast cancer tumors and suppress nerve-to-cancer cross-talk. In vitro, 100-nm nanoparticles were taken up readily by primary neurons, trafficking from the neuronal body and along the axons. We demonstrate that signaling between triple-negative breast cancer cells (4T1) and neurons involves secretion of cytokines stimulating neurite outgrowth. Reciprocally, neurons stimulated 4T1 proliferation, migration, and survival through secretion of neurotransmitters. Bupivacaine curbs neurite growth and signaling with cancer cells, inhibiting cancer cell viability. In vivo, bupivacaine-loaded nanoparticles intravenously administered suppressed neurons in orthotopic triple-negative breast cancer tumors, inhibiting tumor growth and metastatic dissemination. Overall, our findings suggest that reducing nerve involvement in tumors is important for treating cancer.

The use of nanotechnology to combat liver cancer: Progress and perspectives

Liver cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide and is also one of the most difficult cancers to treat, resulting in almost one million deaths per year, and the danger of this cancer is compounded when the tumor is nonresectable. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and has the third highest mortality rate worldwide. Considering the morbid statistics surrounding this cancer it is a popular research topic to target for better therapy practices. This review summarizes the role of nanotechnology in these endeavors. Nanoparticles (NPs) are a very broad class of material and many different kinds have been used to potentially combat liver cancer. Gold, silver, platinum, metal oxide, calcium, and selenium NPs as well as less common materials are all inorganic NPs that have been used as a therapeutic, carrier, or imaging agent in drug delivery systems (DDS) and these efforts are described. Carbon-based NPs, including polymeric, polysaccharide, and lipid NPs as well as carbon dots, have also been widely studied for this purpose and the role they play in DDS for the treatment of liver cancer is illustrated in this review. The multifunctional nature of many NPs described herein, allows these systems to display high anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo and highlights the advantage of and need for combinatorial therapy in treating this difficult cancer. These works are summarized, and future directions are presented for this promising field.

Fenton Reaction Induced by Fe-Based Nanoparticles for Tumor Therapy

Fenton reaction, a typical inorganic reaction, is broadly utilized in the field of wastewater treatment. Recently In case of its ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells, it has been frequently reported in cancer treatment. Using the unique tumor microenvironment in cancer cells, many iron-based nanoparticles have been developed to release iron ions in cancer cells to induce Fenton reaction. In this mini review, we outline several different types of iron-based nanoparticles and several main means to enhance Fenton reaction in cancer cells. Finally, we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of iron-based nanoparticles for cancer therapy, prospected the future development of iron-based nanoparticles. It is believed that iron-based nanoparticles can make certain contribution to the cause of human cancer in the future.

Polyester Polymeric Nanoparticles as Platforms in the Development of Novel Nanomedicines for Cancer Treatment

Many therapeutic agents have failed in their clinical development, due to the toxic effects associated with non-transformed tissues. In this context, nanotechnology has been exploited to overcome such limitations, and also improve navigation across biological barriers. Amongst the many materials used in nanomedicine, with promising properties as therapeutic carriers, the following one stands out: biodegradable and biocompatible polymers. Polymeric nanoparticles are ideal candidates for drug delivery, given the versatility of raw materials and their feasibility in large-scale production. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles show great potential for easy surface modifications to optimize pharmacokinetics, including the half-life in circulation and targeted tissue delivery. Herein, we provide an overview of the current applications of polymeric nanoparticles as platforms in the development of novel nanomedicines for cancer treatment. In particular, we will focus on the raw materials that are widely used for polymeric nanoparticle generation, current methods for formulation, mechanism of action, and clinical investigations.

Peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels for local drug delivery

Peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels have shown great promise as drug delivery systems (DDSs) because of their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, biological function, synthetic feasibility, and responsiveness to external stimuli. Self-assembling peptide molecules are able rationally designed into specific nanoarchitectures in response to the different environmental factors under different circumstances. Among all stimuli that have been investigated, utilizing inherent biological microenvironment, such as metal ions, enzymes and endogenous redox species, to trigger self-assembly endows such systems spatiotemporal controllability to transport therapeutics more accurately. Materials formed by weak non-covalent interactions result in the shear-thinning and immediate recovery behavior. Thus, they are injectable via a syringe or catheter, making them the ideal vehicles to deliver drugs. Based on the above merits, self-assembling peptide-based DDSs have been applied to treat various diseases via direct administration at the lesion site. Herein, in this review, we outline the triggers for inducing peptide-based hydrogels formation and serving as DDSs. We also described the advancements of peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels for local drug delivery, including intratumoral, subcutaneous, ischemia-related tissue (intramyocardial, intrarenal, and ischemic hind limb), and ocular administration. Finally, we give a brief perspective about the prospects and challenges in this field.

Nanostructured Surface Finishing and Coatings: Functional Properties and Applications

This review presents current literature on different nanocomposite coatings and surface finishing for textiles, and in particular this study has focused on smart materials, drug-delivery systems, industrial, antifouling and nano/ultrafiltration membrane coatings. Each of these nanostructured coatings shows interesting properties for different fields of application. In this review, particular attention is paid to the synthesis and the consequent physico-chemical characteristics of each coating and, therefore, to the different parameters that influence the substrate deposition process. Several techniques used in the characterization of these surface finishing coatings were also described. In this review the sol-gel method for preparing stimuli-responsive coatings as smart sensor materials is described; polymers and nanoparticles sensitive to pH, temperature, phase, light and biomolecules are also treated; nanomaterials based on phosphorus, borates, hydroxy carbonates and silicones are used and described as flame-retardant coatings; organic/inorganic hybrid sol-gel coatings for industrial applications are illustrated; carbon nanotubes, metallic oxides and polymers are employed for nano/ultrafiltration membranes and antifouling coatings. Research institutes and industries have collaborated in the advancement of nanotechnology by optimizing conversion processes of conventional materials into coatings with new functionalities for intelligent applications.

Nano-Strategies for Improving the Bioavailability of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Formulations

Pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations are targeted for the treatment of respiratory diseases. However, their application is limited due to the physiological characteristics of the lungs, such as branching structure, mucociliary and macrophages, as well as certain properties of the drugs like particle size and solubility. Nano-formulations can ameliorate particle sizes and improve drug solubility to enhance bioavailability in the lungs. The nano-formulations for lungs reviewed in this article can be classified into nanocarriers, no-carrier-added nanosuspensions and polymer-drug conjugates. Compared with conventional inhalation preparations, these novel pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations have their own advantages, such as increasing drug solubility for better absorption and less inflammatory reaction caused by the aggregation of insoluble drugs; prolonging pulmonary retention time and reducing drug clearance; improving the patient compliance by avoiding multiple repeated administrations. This review will provide the reader with some background information for pulmonary drug delivery and give an overview of the existing literature about nano-formulations for pulmonary application to explore nano-strategies for improving the bioavailability of pulmonary pharmaceutical formulations.

High-Sensitivity Permeation Analysis of Ultrasmall Nanoparticles Across the Skin by Positron Emission Tomography

Ultrasmall nanoparticles (US-NPs; <20 nm in hydrodynamic size) are now included in a variety of pharmacological and cosmetic products, and new technologies are needed to detect at high sensitivity the passage of small doses of these products across biological barriers such as the skin. In this work, a diffusion cell adapted to positron emission tomography (PET), a highly sensitive imaging technology, was developed to measure the passage of gold NPs (AuNPs) in skin samples in continuous mode. US-AuNPs (3.2 nm diam.; TEM) were functionalized with deferoxamine (DFO) and radiolabeled with ⁸⁹Zr_(IV) (half-life: 3.3 days, matching the timeline of diffusion tests). The physicochemical properties of the functionalized US-AuNPs (US-AuNPs-PEG-DFO) were characterized by FTIR (DFO grafting; hydroxamate peaks: 1629.0 cm^-1, 1569.0 cm^-1), XPS (presence of the O═C-N C 1s peak of DFO at 287.49 eV), and TGA (organic mass fraction). The passage of US-AuNPs-PEG-DFO-⁸⁹Zr_(IV) in skin samples was measured by PET, and the diffusion parameters were extracted thereby. The signals of radioactive US-AuNPs-PEG-DFO-⁸⁹Zr_(IV) leaving the donor compartment, passing through the skin, and entering the acceptor compartment were detected in continuous at concentrations as low as 2.2 nM of Au. The high-sensitivity acquisitions performed in continuous allowed for the first time to extract the lag time to the start of permeation, the lag time to start of the steady state, the diffusion coefficients, and the influx data for AuNPs permeating into the skin. PET could represent a highly valuable tool for the development of nanoparticle-containing topical formulations of drugs and cosmetics.

Cell membrane camouflaged bismuth nanoparticles for targeted photothermal therapy of homotypic tumors

Bi nanoparticles (NPs) have been demonstrated as effective all-in-one type theranostic agent for imaging-guided photothermal therapy, but their applications have been limited by relatively low biocompatibility and target accumulation capacity. To address this issue, we report the camouflage of Bi NPs (size: ~42 ± 2 nm) by using the mouse colon cancer CT26 cells membrane (CT26 CCM). The camouflaging process confers the efficient coating of CCM shell layer with thickness of ~8 ± 2 nm on Bi NPs cores, which can be confirmed by TEM image, zeta potential and protein gel electrophoresis tests. Simultaneously, CCM shell has no side effects on the photoabsorption/photothermal effect. Importantly, Bi@CCM NPs retain significant features of CCM, including good biocompatibility and homologous targeting ability. When Bi@CCM dispersion was intravenously (i.v.) injected into mice, they exhibited higher blood circulation half-life (11.5 h, ~2.9 times) and accumulation amount (4.7 ± 0.56% ID/g, ~2.3 times) in homotypic CT26 tumor compared to those (4.0 h in blood and 2.03 ± 0.60% ID/g in tumor) from uncoated Bi NPs. After 808 nm laser irradiation, CT26 cancer cells could be effectively ablated after the photothermal therapy of high-accumulated Bi@CCM NPs, and then the tumor tends to be eradicated after 12 days. Thus, Bi NPs camouflaged with CT26 CCM have great potential for the targeted photothermal therapy of homotypic tumors.

Stimuli-responsive flexible Lewis pair-modified nanoparticles for fluorescence imaging

A stimuli-responsive fluorophore, encompassing a Lewis acid-base pair, binds to primary amines on mesoporous silica nanoparticles, which may serve as environment-sensitive drug carriers. The fluorophore switches conformation, exhibiting different emission color and lifetimes, allowing for the detection of the water content of the nanoparticles' surroundings through fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy.

Nanoformulation of lactoferrin potentiates its activity and enhances novel biotechnological applications

Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 80 kDa, which produced in many mammalian excretions. LF is involved in various physiological processes and known to possess prominent biocidal activities, serving as an effective agent against a wide range of pathogens. This effective biocidal activity of LF in association with immune system response has made this protein an attractive therapeutic candidate. Interaction of proteins with nanoparticles (NPs) gives rise to the formation of a dynamic NP-protein complex and can induce conformational changes in the adsorbed proteins which may lead to the change in their function. With the recent advances in nanotechnology, NPs may provide the protection and stabilization of LF from hydrolysis by some proteases and increase their uptake by targeted cells. These nanoformulations of LF can be used as diagnosis, disease targeting and drug delivery tools. Owing to its multiple functionalities, LF is a promising active ingredient to be loaded or adsorbed to NPs for preparing a stable, controlled surface NPs. Thus, LF NPs can potentially empower the resulting nanocomplex with attracting functionalities and might be useful in many applications, e.g., to modify the optical or rheological properties of products, or to encapsulate and deliver bioactive ingredients.

Applications of Nanobiomaterials in the Therapy and Imaging of Acute Liver Failure

This review focuses on the therapeutic mechanisms, targeting strategies of various nanomaterials in acute liver failure, and recent advances of diverse nanomaterials for acute liver failure therapy, diagnosis, and imaging. This review provides an outlook on the applications of nanomaterials, especially on the new horizons in acute liver failure therapy, and inspires broader interests across various disciplines. Acute liver failure (ALF), a fatal clinical disease featured with overwhelming hepatocyte necrosis, is a grand challenge in global health. However, a satisfactory therapeutic option for curing ALF is still absent, other than liver transplantation. Nanobiomaterials are currently being developed for the diagnosis and treatment of ALF. The liver can sequester most of nanoparticles from blood circulation, which becomes an intrinsic superiority for nanobiomaterials targeting hepatic diseases. Nanobiomaterials can enhance the bioavailability of free drugs, thereby significantly improving the therapeutic effects in ALF. Nanobiomaterials can also increase the liver accumulation of therapeutic agents and enable more effective targeting of the liver or specific liver cells. In addition, stimuli-responsive, optical, or magnetic nanomaterials exhibit great potential in the therapeutical, diagnostic, and imaging applications in ALF. Therefore, therapeutic agents in combination with nanobiomaterials increase the specificity of ALF therapy, diminish adverse systemic effects, and offer a multifunctional theranostic platform. Nanobiomaterial holds excellent significance and prospects in ALF theranostics. In this review, we summarize the therapeutic mechanisms and targeting strategies of various nanobiomaterials in ALF. We highlight recent developments of diverse nanomedicines for ALF therapy, diagnosis, and imaging. Furthermore, the challenges and future perspectives in the theranostics of ALF are also discussed.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Evaluation of Genistein-Loaded Zein/Carboxymethyl Chitosan Nanoparticles with Improved Water Dispersibility, Enhanced Antioxidant Activity, and Controlled Release Property

Genistein is one of major isoflavones derived from soybean products and it is believed to have beneficial effects on human health. However, its low water-solubility and poor oral bioavailability severely hamper its use as a functional food ingredient or for pharmaceutical industry. In this study, zein and zein/carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) nanoparticles were prepared to encapsulate genistein using a combined liquid-liquid phase separation method. The physicochemical properties of fabricated nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results demonstrated that genistein encapsulated with zein nanoparticles significantly improved its water dispersibility, antioxidant activity in the aqueous phase, and photostability against UV light. Moreover, genistein encapsulated in zein nanoparticles showed a sustained release property. Furthermore, it was found that encapsulation efficiency of genistein was significantly enhanced after CMCS coating, and this effect was more pronounced after the complex nanoparticles cross-linked with calcium ions when compared with the use of zein as a single encapsulant. In addition, compared to zein nanoparticles without biopolymer coating, CMCS coating significantly enhanced the thermal and storage stability of the formed nanoparticles, and delayed the release of genistein. A schematic diagram of zein and zein/carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) nanoparticles formation mechanism for encapsulation of genistein was proposed. According to the results of the current study, it could be concluded that encapsulation of genistein in zein/CMCS nanoparticles is a promising approach to improve its water dispersibility, antioxidant activity, photostability against UV light and provide controlled release for food/pharmaceutical applications.

The impact of curcumin-graphene based nanoformulation on cellular interaction and redox-activated apoptosis: An in vitro colon cancer study

Natural plants derivatives have gained enormous merits in cancer therapy applications upon formulation with nanomaterials. Curcumin, as a popular research focus has acquired such improvements surpassing its disadvantageous low bioavailability. To this point, the available research data had confirmed the importance of nanomaterial type in orienting cellular response and provoking different toxicological and death mechanisms that may range from physical membrane damage to intracellular changes. This in turn underlines the poorly studied field of nanoformulation interaction with cells as the key determinant in toxicology outcomes. In this work, curcumin-AuNPs-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite (CAG) was implemented as a model, to study the impact on cellular membrane integrity and the possible redox changes using colon cancer in vitro cell lines (HT-29 and SW-948), representing drug-responsive and resistant subtypes. Morphological and biochemical methods of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), apoptosis assay, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants glutathione and superoxide dismutase (GSH and SOD) levels were examined with consideration to suitable protocols and vital optimizations. TEM micrographs proved endocytic uptake with succeeding cytoplasm deposition, which unlike other nanomaterials studied previously, conserved membrane integrity allowing intracellular cytotoxic mechanism. Apoptosis was confirmed with gold-standard morphological features observed in micrographs, while redox parameters revealed a time-dependent increase in ROS accompanied with regressive GSH and SOD levels. Collectively, this work demonstrates the success of graphene as a platform for curcumin intracellular delivery and cytotoxicity, and further highlights the importance of suitable in vitro methods to be used for nanomaterial validation.

The role of single- and multi-walled carbon nanotube in breast cancer treatment

Numerous studies have been conducted to design new strategies for breast cancer treatment. Past studies have shown a wide range of carbon-nanomaterials properties, such as single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs and MWCNTs) in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. In this regard, the current study aims to review the role of both SWCNTs and MWCNTs in breast cancer treatment and diagnosis. For reaching this goal, we reviewed the literature by using various searching engines such as Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science and MEDLINE. This comprehensive review showed that CNTs could dramatically improve breast cancer treatment and could be used as a novel modality to increase diagnostic accuracy; however, no clinical studies have been conducted based on CNTs. In addition, the literature review demonstrates a lack of enough studies to evaluate the side effects of using CNTs.

Broad-Spectrum Preclinical Antitumor Activity of Chrysin: Current Trends and Future Perspectives

Pharmacological profile of phytochemicals has attracted much attention to their use in disease therapy. Since cancer is a major problem for public health with high mortality and morbidity worldwide, experiments have focused on revealing the anti-tumor activity of natural products. Flavonoids comprise a large family of natural products with different categories. Chrysin is a hydroxylated flavonoid belonging to the flavone category. Chrysin has demonstrated great potential in treating different disorders, due to possessing biological and therapeutic activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, etc. Over recent years, the anti-tumor activity of chrysin has been investigated, and in the present review, we provide a mechanistic discussion of the inhibitory effect of chrysin on proliferation and invasion of different cancer cells. Molecular pathways, such as Notch1, microRNAs, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), PI3K/Akt, MAPK, etc., as targets of chrysin are discussed. The efficiency of chrysin in promoting anti-tumor activity of chemotherapeutic agents and suppressing drug resistance is described. Moreover, poor bioavailability, as one of the drawbacks of chrysin, is improved using various nanocarriers, such as micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, etc. This updated review will provide a direction for further studies in evaluating the anti-tumor activity of chrysin.

Cholesterol-conjugated bovine serum albumin nanoparticles as a tamoxifen tumor-targeted delivery system

In the present study, we introduced cholesterol (CLO)-conjugated bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA NPs) as a new system for indirect targeting drug delivery. Tamoxifen, as an anticancer drug, was loaded on BSA NPs (BSA-TAX NPs); CLO was then conjugated to the BSA-TAX NPs surface for the targeted delivery of NPs system, by 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide/N-hydroxy succinimide carbodiimide chemistry (CLO-BSA-TAX NPs). The physicochemical properties, toxicity, in vitro, and in vivo biocompatibility of the BSA NPs system were characterized on cancer cell lines (4T1). The results revealed that the BSA NPs system has a regular spherical shape and negative zeta-potential values. The drug release of BSA NPs system has shown controlled and pH-dependent drug release behavior. BSA NPs system was biocompatible but it was potentially toxic on the cancer cell line. The CLO-BSA-TAX NPs exhibited higher toxicity against cancer cell lines than other NPs formulation (BSA NPs and BSA-TAX NPs). It can be concluded that the CLO, as an indirect targeting agent, enhances the toxicity and specificity of NPs system on cancer cell lines. It could potentially be suitable approaches to targeting the tumors in clinical cancer therapy.

Drug-encapsulated blend of PLGA-PEG microspheres: in vitro and in vivo study of the effects of localized/targeted drug delivery on the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is more aggressive and difficult to treat using conventional bulk chemotherapy that is often associated with increased toxicity and side effects. In this study, we encapsulated targeted drugs [A bacteria-synthesized anticancer drug (prodigiosin) and paclitaxel] using single solvent evaporation technique with a blend of FDA-approved poly lactic-co-glycolic acid-polyethylene glycol (PLGA_PEG) polymer microspheres. These drugs were functionalized with Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing hormone (LHRH) ligands whose receptors are shown to overexpressed on surfaces of TNBC. The physicochemical, structural, morphological and thermal properties of the drug-loaded microspheres were then characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Results obtained from in vitro kinetics drug release at human body temperature (37 °C) and hyperthermic temperatures (41 and 44 °C) reveal a non-Fickian sustained drug release that is well-characterized by Korsmeyer-Peppas model with thermodynamically non-spontaneous release of drug. Clearly, the in vitro and in vivo drug release from conjugated drug-loaded microspheres (PLGA-PEG_PGS-LHRH, PLGA-PEG_PTX-LHRH) is shown to result in greater reductions of cell/tissue viability in the treatment of TNBC. The in vivo animal studies also showed that all the drug-loaded PLGA-PEG microspheres for the localized and targeted treatment of TNBC did not caused any noticeable toxicity and thus significantly extended the survival of the treated mice post tumor resection. The implications of this work are discussed for developing targeted drug systems to treat and prevent local recurred triple negative breast tumors after surgical resection.