Level and change of bullying behavior during high school: A multilevel growth curve analysis

Defending Behavior and Victimization: Between- and Within-Person Associations

Anti-bullying interventions often encourage peer bystanders to defend their victimized peers. However, concerns have been raised that defending could put youth at risk for being victimized themselves. Despite these concerns, there is limited research on the longitudinal links between defending and victimization. Addressing limitations of previous research, the current study examined bidirectional associations between three types of peer-reported defending (comforting defending, assertive defending, reporting to authority) and (self- and peer-reported) victimization, teasing apart between- and within-person associations using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models. Participants included 5123 Finnish adolescents (45.9% self-identified as a boy; T1 Mage = 13.06, SD = 1.69, 93.5% born in Finland) in grades 4 to 9. There was a significant, negative between-person association only between comforting defending and self-reported victimization. There were no significant prospective within-person associations between any type of defending and self- or peer-reported victimization. The findings did not indicate that defending was a risk factor for subsequent victimization.

Longitudinal associations between parental attachment and adolescents' pro-bullying bystander behaviors: The mediating role of moral disengagement

BACKGROUND

Pro-bullying bystander behaviors refer to actively taking the bullies' side when the bullying occurs, such as joining in the bullying or assisting the bullies by laughing or cheering. Previous studies have indicated that pro-bullying bystander behaviors might increase the incidence and intensity of bullying directly. Poor-quality parental attachment has been found to predict adolescents' pro-bullying bystander behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

We tested whether adolescents' moral disengagement mediated the association and tested for gender differences in this process.

METHODS

A longitudinal study was conducted three times, each 6 months apart to test our hypotheses.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

885 participants (47.91 % boys) were included in the longitudinal mediating model of parental attachment, moral disengagement, and pro-bullying bystander behaviors.

RESULTS

We found that parental attachment at Time 1 negatively predicted moral disengagement at Time 2, and moral disengagement at Time 2 positively predicted adolescents' pro-bullying bystander behaviors at Time 3. Moral disengagement at Time 2 mediated the relationship between parental attachment at Time 1 and pro-bullying bystander behaviors at Time 3. The longitudinal mediation was marginally significant for boys but not for girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicated that moral disengagement, as a longitudinal mediating factor in the link between parental attachment and pro-bullying bystander behaviors, might be a useful focus in interventions to reduce school bullying.

Moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy as predictors of bystander behaviors in peer victimization in middle school: A one-year longitudinal study

Numerous empirical studies have contributed to the understanding of factors connected to students' bystander behaviors in peer victimization situations. Nevertheless, a crucial gap remains concerning the scarcity of longitudinal studies. Drawing on social cognitive theory, the present study examined whether moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy predicted bystander behaviors a year later. Participants were 1346 Swedish adolescents (MageT1 = 13.6 years, MageT2 = 14.6 years) who answered a web-based self-report questionnaire in seventh and eighth grades. Random intercept models showed that higher levels of moral disengagement in seventh grade were associated with more pro-aggressive bystanding in eighth grade (Est = 0.19, p < .001), with interaction analyses revealing that this effect was particularly pronounced in students with high defender self-efficacy (Est = 0.05, p < .01). The results also revealed that higher levels of defender self-efficacy in seventh grade were associated with more defending (Est = 0.18, p < .001) and less passive bystanding (Est = -0.11, p < .001) in eighth grade. Interaction analyses further demonstrated that the negative association between defender self-efficacy and passive bystanding was significant only at low levels of moral disengagement (Est = 0.09, p < .001). Our findings suggest that moral disengagement is more strongly related to the inhibitive form of moral agency among bystanders, whereas defender self-efficacy is more strongly related to proactive moral agency. Thus, interventions aiming to reduce pro-aggressive bystanding and promote defending need to consider both moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy.

Analysis of Prevalence and Related Factors of Cyberbullying-Victimization among Adolescents

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Cyberbullying is an increasingly serious issue that negatively impacts the mental and physical health of adolescents. This study aims to report the prevalence rates of adolescent cyberbullying-victimization and its associated related factors, providing a scientific basis for targeted efforts to protect the mental and physical well-being of adolescents; Methods: From March to May 2019, there were 13 high schools and 33 middle schools in Yixing, with a student ratio of 2:1 between middle and high school. Using a random cluster sampling method, we selected four high schools and three middle schools based on this ratio, resulting in a total of 13,258 students. We conducted a survey using a self-designed questionnaire to investigate the experiences of adolescents with cyberbullying and victimization, comparing the differences in cyberbullying-victimization based on various demographic characteristics. Additionally, we employed a multifactorial logistic regression model to analyze the associated factors; Results: The rate of adolescents who declared themselves as cyberbully-victims is 2.9%. The results of the logistic regression analysis indicate that being male, having both parents working outside the home, experiencing occasional or large conflicts among family members, being subjected to punishment-and-abuse child discipline, always or often using social software (websites), enjoying playing single or multiplayer games, self-smoking, and self-drinking were associated with a higher likelihood of being a cyberbully-victim (p < 0.05); Conclusions: Adolescent cyberbullying-victimization is affected by personal, family, and social factors. Therefore, comprehensive strategies and measures are needed to intervene in this problem.

Basic moral sensitivity, moral disengagement, and defender self-efficacy as predictors of students' self-reported bystander behaviors over a school year: a growth curve analysis

Though school children tend to view peer victimization as morally wrong most do not to intervene on the victim's behalf and some instead choose to aid the victimizer. The aim of this longitudinal study was to investigate how students' defending and pro-aggressive bystander behaviors evolved over the course of one school year and their association to basic moral sensitivity, moral disengagement, and defender self-efficacy. Three-hundred-fifty-three upper elementary school students (55% girls; 9.9-12.9 years of age) each completed self-report surveys at three points during one school year. Results from latent growth curve models showed that pro-aggressive bystander behavior remained stable over the year, whereas defending behavior decreased. Moreover, students who exhibited greater basic moral sensitivity were both less likely to be pro-aggressive and simultaneously more likely to defend. Students with defender self-efficacy were not only associated with more defending behavior at baseline but also were also less likely to decrease in defender behavior over time. Conversely, students reporting a higher degree of moral disengagement were linked to more pro-aggressive behavior, particularly when also reporting lower basic moral sensitivity. These short-term longitudinal results add important insight into the change in bystander behavior over time and how it relates to students' sense of morality. The results also highlight the practical necessity for schools to nurture students' sense of morality and prosocial behavior in their efforts to curb peer victimization.

Exploring Aggressive Behaviors in Greek Secondary Schools: Prevalence, Sociodemographic Factors, and Comparative Analysis with Elementary School Students

The main objectives of this study are to determine the prevalence of bullying in Greek secondary schools and detect the possible characteristics of bullies' profiles in Greek school settings. A structured questionnaire was given to one hundred ninety-two (n = 192) educators at Greek junior high schools in urban and rural areas. The educators were asked to report the frequencies and forms of aggressive behavior observed during the 2022-2023 school year, the bullies' sociodemographic characteristics, and ways of dealing with bullying episodes. The data are presented, after conducting statistical analyses, in comparison with data for elementary school students. The results revealed that higher rates of bullying were reported compared with elementary school children. Moreover, according to teachers' observations, aggressive behavior is independent of a pupil's diagnosis, but specific types are correlated significantly with a pupil's gender, nationality, low academic performance, and popularity. Factor analysis showed two main factors of aggression types, where common points and differences with elementary school students are mentioned. Implementations for the prevention of school bullying are discussed.

Validation of the multidimensional bystander responses to racist hate speech scale and its association with empathy and moral disengagement among adolescents

Our understanding of how bystanders respond to hate speech is limited. This may be due, in part, to the lack of available measurement tools. However, understanding adolescents' responses to hate speech is critical because this kind of research can support schools in empowering students to exhibit courageous moral behavior. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the newly developed Multidimensional Bystander Responses to Hate Speech Scale (MBRHS) and to explore demographic differences and correlates of bystander behavior in school hate speech. The sample consisted of 3225 seventh to ninth graders from Germany and Switzerland. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a model with seven factors. We found that adolescents with immigrant background and boys showed particularly unfavorable response patterns. In addition, our study suggests that empathy is positively correlated with the factors comforting the victim, seeking help at school, and countering hate speech but negatively correlated with helplessness, revenge, reinforcing, and ignoring. Moral disengagement showed the opposite correlational pattern. The findings indicate that the MBRHS is a psychometrically valid and reliable measure that could aid in measuring varied responses to hate speech. In addition, this work highlights the relevance of empathy and moral engagement training in anti-hate speech prevention programs.

Development and Validation of the Adolescent Defending Behaviors Questionnaire Among Chinese Early Adolescents

This study aimed to clarify the multidimensionality of defending by developing and validating the Adolescent Defending Behaviors Questionnaire (ADBQ) in a sample of Chinese adolescents. Results of Study 1 (N = 824, Mage = 11.25) indicated that a five-factor model, comprising (a) assertive defending, (b) aggressive defending, (c) comforting victims, (d) reporting to authority, and (e) tactical defending, yielded a good fit to the data. Study 2 (N = 1,086, Mage = 11.18) established ADBQ's reliability (α = .78-.93) and construct validity: the five defending dimensions were differentially associated with cognitive and affective empathy, aggression, sociability, peer preference, and victimization. Together, the results suggest that the ADBQ is a psychometrically valid and reliable instrument for assessing the multidimensionality of defending.

Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on defending behavior: Investigating individual-level mechanisms of change

Given that defending victimized peers might help discourage bullying behavior and prevent its harmful consequences, various anti-bullying programs have attempted to increase defending behavior among participating children. However, the cognitions that underlie the effectiveness of interventions in increasing defending remain unknown. Data for this randomized controlled trial (RCT) of the KiVa anti-bullying program were collected in Finnish primary schools at baseline, after 5 months of implementation, and after 9 months of implementation and were used to examine the possible mediating role of seven psychological factors (empathy for the victim, feelings of responsibility to intervene, self-efficacy for defending, negative attitudes towards victims, and outcome expectations that defending would decrease or stop the bullying, be beneficial for one's status, and not increase one's risk of being victimized). Analyses conducted on a sample of 5731 children (baseline M_age = 11 years; 51% girls) revealed that the positive effects of KiVa on defending behavior after 9 months of implementation could partly be explained by the positive effects of the program on two factors (i.e., feelings of responsibility to intervene and expectations that the defending would make the bullying decrease or stop) after 5 months of implementation. This study provides information regarding the individual-level factors that anti-bullying interventions can target to successfully promote defending of victimized peers in primary schools.

Peer victimization and developmental psychopathology in childhood and adolescence Italian psychiatric emergency unit. A single center retrospective observational study

Peer victimization is a public health concern that affects a significant proportion of children and adolescents. The study evaluated the prevalence of peer victimization among 440 subjects referred to Emergency Department for a psychiatric consultation and analyzed the association with psychopathological symptoms. Sample was divided into two categories (6-13 and 14-18 years old). Logistics regression analysis was performed. Peer victimized were reported in 16.3% of subjects; 27.7% were younger than13 years old and 72.3% were between 14-18 years old, representing the main targets for peer victimization.A significant association was found between being peer victimized and depressive disorder (OR=4.57) in subjects younger than 13 years old and, with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)(OR=6.52) in subjects older than 13 years old. Furthermore, linkage between being peer victimized and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)(OR=4.45) was noted. Increased frequency of repeated hospitalizations was also documented.This is the first Italian study about children and adolescent peer victimization in psychiatric setting, showing a significant higher risk for depressive disorder in subjects younger than 13 years old and PTSD and OCD in subjects older than 13 years old. Investigating experiences of peer victimization provides an early diagnosis and a more efficient treatment plans, guaranteeing an improved clinical outcome.

What roles matter? An explorative study on bullying and cyberbullying by using the eye-tracker

BACKGROUND

Bullying and cyberbullying are serious public health concerns that involve more roles beyond the bully and the victim (pro-bullies, defenders, bystanders). However, students often perceive the phenomena as dyadic.

AIM

The purpose was to examine students' perceptions of different roles when observing bullying and cyberbullying scenes combining implicit (attention by using the eye-tracker) and explicit (verbal reports) measures.

SAMPLE

We included 50 Italian students (aged 10-11).

METHODS

Students watched 12 drawings of different types of bullying and cyberbullying while their gaze was tracked, and subsequently described each drawing verbally. We ran repeated measure ANOVAs to compare attentional indexes (fixation count, visit count and total fixation duration) in observing roles and Cochran's Q test to evaluate differences in the verbal identification of roles.

RESULTS

Overall, the victim and bully were the most observed and identified roles in every type of bullying and cyberbullying scenario. Concerning the other roles, a discrepancy was observed between the implicit and explicit measures since although it was greatly identified, the pro-bully received less attention, and while the bystander received great attention, it was mentioned less. Finally, the defender was more observed and identified in physical bullying and cyberbullying.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study points out for the first time the dyadic perception of the phenomena among adolescents using implicit and explicit measures and sheds light on differences among the roles in different forms of bullying. Further research including the eye-tracker would be worthwhile given the possibility of exploring the phenomena from different perspectives.

Investigating the effects of autonomy-supportive parenting practices on Italian young adolescent students' motivation to defend victims of bullying: findings on the mediating roles of reactance, depression, anxiety, and stress

This study investigated the effect of autonomy-supportive parenting practices on young adolescents' self-reported motivation to defend victims of bullying, and the possible mediating effects of factors such as reactance, anxiety, depression, and stress.

Methods

Data were collected from 578 Italian public school students ages 10-14 (M age = 11.8 years, 52% boys), who completed a survey in their classroom. The survey included self-report measures of parental orientation, motivation to defend victims of bullying, reactance, anxiety, depression, and stress.

Results

We found that autonomy-supportive parenting had a positive effect on autonomous motivation to defend, and that this effect was weakly mediated by reactance. Moreover, autonomy-supportive parenting had a negative effect on extrinsic motivation to defend, which was partially mediated by reactance. Reactance had a positive direct effect on extrinsic motivation to defend, but results also showed that anxiety, depression, and stress did not mediate the effect of autonomy-supportive parenting on motivation to defend. Additionally, autonomy-supportive parenting appeared to play a protective role, being associated with lower levels of reactance, anxiety, depression, and stress. Finally, gender differences were found in our sample, with extrinsic motivation to defend being more prevalent in boys, and autonomous motivation to defend being more prevalent in girls. Girls also reported higher levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, compared to boys.

Conclusion

Our findings show that autonomy-supportive parenting practices play a significant role in fostering young adolescents' motivation to defend victims of bullying, and that they are also linked with lower feelings of reactance, anxiety, depression, and stress. We argue that interventions aimed at contrasting bullying and cyberbullying among youths should seek to involve parents more and promote the adoption of more autonomy-supportive parenting practices, due to their consistently proven beneficial effects.

Dynamic risk for first onset of depressive disorders in adolescence: does change matter?

BACKGROUND

Risk factors for depressive disorders (DD) change substantially over time, but the prognostic value of these changes remains unclear. Two basic types of dynamic effects are possible. The 'Risk Escalation hypothesis' posits that worsening of risk levels predicts DD onset above average level of risk factors. Alternatively, the 'Chronic Risk hypothesis' posits that the average level rather than change predicts first-onset DD.

METHODS

We utilized data from the ADEPT project, a cohort of 496 girls (baseline age 13.5-15.5 years) from the community followed for 3 years. Participants underwent five waves of assessments for risk factors and diagnostic interviews for DD. For illustration purposes, we selected 16 well-established dynamic risk factors for adolescent depression, such as depressive and anxiety symptoms, personality traits, clinical traits, and social risk factors. We conducted Cox regression analyses with time-varying covariates to predict first DD onset.

RESULTS

Consistently elevated risk factors (i.e. the mean of multiple waves), but not recent escalation, predicted first-onset DD, consistent with the Chronic Risk hypothesis. This hypothesis was supported across all 16 risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Across a range of risk factors, girls who had first-onset DD generally did not experience a sharp increase in risk level shortly before the onset of disorder; rather, for years before onset, they exhibited elevated levels of risk. Our findings suggest that chronicity of risk should be a particular focus in screening high-risk populations to prevent the onset of DDs. In particular, regular monitoring of risk factors in school settings is highly informative.

Neuropsychiatric Manifestations, Reduced Self-Esteem and Poor Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents with Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1): The Impact of Symptom Visibility and Bullying Behavior

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is an autosomal dominant condition, associated with neurocutaneous manifestations and neuropsychiatric manifestations. The present study explored the prevalence of bullying/cyberbullying behaviors and victimization behaviors in a cohort of children and adolescents with NF1. Possible gender differences and predictors of psychological symptoms, quality of life (QoL), and self-esteem were also examined. Thirty-eight school-aged participants with NF1 completed a psychological evaluation designed to assess anxiety and depression symptomatology, QoL, self-esteem, and the prevalence and extent of bullying/cyberbullying and victimization behaviors. We found that our participants frequently reported victimization behaviors rather than bullying/cyberbullying ones. Moreover, participants complained of depressive and anxiety symptomatology together with reduced self-esteem, and low psychosocial quality of life, with females reporting more severe performances than males. Furthermore, we found that reduced self-esteem was associated with more visibility of the NF1 symptoms, and victimization behaviors were found to mediate the relationship between anxiety and psychosocial QoL. Our findings indicated the presence of a maladaptive loop in children and adolescents with NF1 patients characterized by psychological symptoms, unfavorable self-perception, low self-esteem, and psychosocial difficulties that might be worsened by experiencing victimization behaviors. These results suggest the need to use a multidisciplinary approach in the diagnosis and treatment of NF1.

The indirect association between moral disengagement and bystander behaviors in school bullying through motivation: Structural equation modelling and mediation analysis

Guided by the social-cognitive theory and self-determination theory, this study examined whether moral disengagement is indirectly associated with pro-bullying, passive bystanding, and defending, mediated by autonomous motivation, introjected motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation to defend victims of bullying among early adolescents. Participants were 901 upper elementary students from 43 school classes at 15 public schools in Sweden who completed a questionnaire in their classrooms. The results showed that students who were less inclined to morally disengage in peer bullying tended to be more autonomously motivated to take the victim’s side, which in turn was associated with greater defending and fewer pro-bullying behaviors. Introjected motivation to defend negatively mediated the association between moral disengagement and defending, and positively mediated moral disengagement’s associations with passive bystanding and pro-bullying behavior. Extrinsic motivation to defend mediated moral disengagement’s associations with passive bystanding and pro-bullying behavior. Finally, students who were more prone to morally disengage in peer bullying tended to be more amotivated to take the victim’s side, which in turn was associated with greater pro-bullying behavior and less defending.

Defending or Remaining Passive as a Bystander of School Bullying in Sweden: The Role of Moral Disengagement and Antibullying Class Norms

The overall aim of the present study was to examine whether moral disengagement and perceptions of antibullying class norms at individual level and at class level were associated with defending and passive bystanding in school bullying among school-age children. More specifically, we investigated the extent to which moral disengagement would contribute to explain defending and passive bystanding, after controlling for sex and perceptions of antibullying class norms at individual level and at class level. A total of 789 Swedish students (aged 10-14) from 40 middle school classes filled out a self-report survey. The findings revealed that girls and students who were less prone to morally disengage, and who perceived that their classmates endorsed more antibullying norms, were more likely to defend victimized peers. Students who were more inclined to morally disengage and perceive that classmates do not condemn bullying were more likely to act as passive bystanders. In addition, classes with higher levels of antibullying class norms were more likely to show higher rates of defending and lower rates of passive bystanding compared to the other classes. The findings suggest that schools and teachers need to develop educational strategies, methods, and efforts designed to make students aware of moral disengagement and to reduce their likelihood of morally disengaging in bullying situations. The present findings also point to the importance of teachers establishing class rules against bullying together with the students.

Early Adolescents' Motivations to Defend Victims of Cyberbullying

The aim of this study was to investigate how different types of motivation to defend victims of bullying would be associated with various bystander behaviors in cyberbullying situations among early adolescents in Sweden. Data were collected from 460 Swedish adolescents aged between 11 and 15 years who completed a survey in their classroom. Results showed that autonomous motivation to defend was positively associated with defender behavior and negatively associated with pro-bully and passive behavior, while extrinsic motivation was positively associated with pro-bully and passive behavior. Age was positively associated with increased passive behavior and dampened defensive behavior, while no effect of gender was found on defender behavior. Our findings suggest that students' autonomous motivation to defend victims is important in cyberbullying situations.

Individual Moral Disengagement and Bullying Among Swedish Fifth Graders: The Role of Collective Moral Disengagement and Pro-Bullying Behavior Within Classrooms

School bullying is a complex social and relational phenomenon with severe consequences for those involved. Most children view bullying as wrong and recognize its harmful consequences; nevertheless, it continues to be a persistent problem within schools. Previous research has shown that children's engagement in bullying perpetration can be influenced by multiple factors (e.g., different forms of cognitive distortions) and at different ecological levels (e.g., child, peer-group, school, and society). However, the complexity of school bullying warrants further investigation of the interplay between factors, at different levels. Grounded in social cognitive theory, which focuses on both cognitive factors and social processes, this study examined whether children's bullying perpetration was associated with moral disengagement at the child level and with collective moral disengagement and prevalence of pro-bullying behavior at the classroom level. Cross-level interactions were also tested to examine the effects of classroom-level variables on the association between children's tendency to morally disengage and bullying perpetration. The study's analyses were based on cross-sectional self-report questionnaire data from 1,577 Swedish fifth-grade children from 105 classrooms (53.5% girls; M_age = 11.3, SD = 0.3). Multilevel modeling techniques were used to analyze the data. The results showed that bullying perpetration was positively associated with moral disengagement at the child level and with collective moral disengagement and pro-bullying behavior at the classroom level. Furthermore, the effect of individual moral disengagement on bullying was stronger for children in classrooms with higher levels of pro-bullying behaviors. These findings further support the argument that both moral processes and behaviors within classrooms, such as collective moral disengagement and pro-bullying behavior, need to be addressed in schools' preventive work against bullying.

Victimization among children and adolescents accessing the Meyer pediatric hospital: A retrospective study

Problem

The consistent prevalence and occasionally severe consequences of bullying and victimization suggest the need to include a more accurate assessment of these episodes within the Emergency Departments (ED). However, the literature on mental health related symptoms of bullying/victimization treated in the ED is still scarce. The aim of this study is to assess the prevalence of peer victimization amongst children and adolescents referred to an Italian Pediatric Emergency Department. Differences between Hospital Departments, type of victimization and ages are tested.

Methods

A retrospective observational study was conducted with 705 subjects. The age range was from 6 to 18 years old (M = 13.09; SD = 3.048).

Findings

15.3% of the sample reported to be victimized (8.2% occasionally; 7.1% systematically). For the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit, we found a significant association between peer victimization and being adolescent (Fisher's p = 0.003). In addition, a significant association was found between verbal victimization and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit (Fisher's p = 0.02) and physical victimization and Child Abuse Department (Fisher's p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Findings suggest the importance of an accurate assessment of victimization experiences of children and adolescents with access to ED, to prevent future re‐victimization and crystallization of symptoms across time.

A Multilevel Analysis of the Relation Between Bullying Roles and Social and Emotional Competencies

This study investigated how social and emotional competencies are related to middle school students' involvement in bullying, and whether class-levels variables influence this association. There were 668 participants (M_age = 12.73, SD = 1.08) who participated in a screening for inclusion in a social and emotional learning program. Results showed that students not involved in bullying displayed higher levels of self-esteem than students involved in bullying in any role (victims, perpetrators, or bully-victims), higher levels of self-control and social awareness than perpetrators and bully-victims, and higher levels of responsible decision making than bully-victims. Gender did not moderate the relation between any bullying roles and social and emotional competencies, but class size moderated the relation between being a bully/victim and self-esteem and between being a bully and self-control. These results supported the relevance of including class-level variables when analyzing the relation between bullying and social and emotional competencies.

Childhood Predictors of Adolescent Joint Trajectories: A Multi-Informant Study on Bullying Perpetration and Hypercompetitiveness

Objective: Bullying perpetration has been proposed to be a strategic behavior used by adolescents to compete for social resources, yet the co-development of bullying perpetration and trait hypercompetitiveness is understudied. The joint developmental trajectories of self-rated bullying perpetration and parent-rated hypercompetitiveness were investigated in a sample of adolescents and childhood social, emotional, and physical predictors were explored.Method: In a sample of 607 adolescents (M_age = 13.02 years in Grade 7 [SD = 0.38]; 54.4% girls; 76.4% White) self-rated bullying perpetration and parent-rated hypercompetitiveness were assessed across six years of development (Grades 7 to 12). Childhood (i.e., Grades 5 and 6) social, emotional, and physical predictors of trajectory group membership were also examined.Results: Using latent class growth analyses, the three expected joint trajectory groups of primary interest were found: (1) a pattern of moderate stable bullying perpetration and high increasing hypercompetitiveness (high-risk group), (2) a pattern of low decreasing bullying and high increasing hypercompetitiveness (hypercompetitive only group), and (3) a pattern of low decreasing bullying and low stable hypercompetitiveness (low-risk group). Adolescents reflecting the high-risk joint trajectory pattern were differentiated from adolescents reflecting the other two trajectory patterns by having more adverse childhood social, emotional, and physical predictors.Conclusions: Findings indicate that bullying is a developmental and context-dependent behavior that can reflect trait hypercompetitiveness. Bullying prevention efforts should focus on reducing emphasis on outcompeting peers and instead facilitate a sense of self-acceptance, awareness, and accomplishment within prosocial school and family environments.

Impacts of Low Self-Control and Delinquent Peer Associations on Bullying Growth Trajectories Among Korean Youth: A Latent Growth Mixture Modeling Approach

The emergence of studies applying Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) self-control theory to offending behaviors has produced empirical support confirming the position that individuals with low self-control are more likely to engage in deviant behaviors. However, few have examined its effects with opportunity factors. The present study examines the time-invariant effect of low self-control, as well as the time-concurrent and lagged effects of opportunity factors (parental attachment and delinquent peer associations), on bullying growth trajectories. The findings in the latent growth curve analysis demonstrate that low self-control is significantly related to both the initial levels and change in bullying over time, even after controlling for delinquent peer associations in homogeneous populations. The new approach described within the latent class growth modeling framework (i.e., growth mixture) incorporates a categorical latent trajectory variable representing latent classes (i.e., distinct subgroups), having similar patterns of bullying growth trajectories. Three groups of students emerged from the student-reported data at five time points from ages 11 to 15, decreasers (90%), moderate late peakers (7%), and high late peakers(3%), defined by different predictors and sequelae. Low self-control was rendered insignificant for both moderate late peakers and high late peakers relative to decreasers; delinquent peer associations had a time-concurrent effect for moderate late peakers than decreasers; and high late peakers had a time-lagged effect relative to moderate late peakers.

Direct Bullying and Cyberbullying: Experimental Study of Bystanders' Motivation to Defend Victims and the Role of Anxiety and Identification With the Bully

School bullying among young adolescents is a globally pervasive problem, but is less common when bystanders are motivated to defend victims. Thus, the focus of this experimental study is on motivation to defend victims of bullying. Methods: A total of 388 students (M age = 12.22 years, 49.7% girls) from two Turkish public schools (5th-8th grade) participated in a vignette experiment. Students were randomized to one of two vignettes (direct vs. cyberbullying). Self-report measures of motivation to defend, trait anxiety, depression, and identification with the victim or bully were used. Results: Participants reported more autonomous motivation in the cyberbullying condition, while those who witnessed direct bullying reported higher anxiety and depression. Results also revealed that this type of condition was associated with anxiety and depression, while anxiety was associated with autonomous motivation to defend. Finally, participants in the direct bullying condition were more likely to identify with the bully. Conclusion: Findings advance our understanding of when and why adolescents are motivated to help victims of bullying because they give a richer picture of what they assess when deciding whether or not they should intervene.

Bullying and Victimization Trajectories in the First Years of Secondary Education: Implications for Status and Affection

Bullying is known to be associated with social status, but it remains unclear how bullying involvement over time relates to social position (status and affection), especially in the first years at a new school. The aim of this study was to investigate whether (the development of) bullying and victimization was related to the attainment of status (perceived popularity) and affection (friendships, acceptance, rejection) in the first years of secondary education (six waves). Using longitudinal data spanning the first- and second year of secondary education of 824 adolescents (51.5% girls; M_age T1 = 12.54, SD = 0.45) in the SNARE-study, joint bullying and victimization trajectories were estimated using parallel Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA). The four trajectories (decreasing bully, stable high bully, decreasing victim, uninvolved) were related to adolescents’ social position using multigroup analysis that examined differences in slope and intercepts (T1 and T6) of social positions, and indicated that the relative social position of the different joint trajectories was determined at the start of secondary education and did not change over time, with one exception: adolescents continuing bullying were besides being popular also increasingly rejected over time. Although bullying is functional behavior that serves to optimize adolescents’ social position, anti-bullying interventions may account for the increasing lack of affection that may hinder bullies’ long-term social development.

Standing up for the victim or supporting the bully? Bystander responses and their associations with moral disengagement, defender self-efficacy, and collective efficacy

The aim of the current study was to examine whether moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy at individual level and collective efficacy to stop peer aggression at classroom level were associated with defending and reinforcing in school bullying situations in late childhood. Self-reported survey data were collected from 1060 Swedish students from 70 classrooms in 29 schools. Multilevel analysis found that greater defender self-efficacy at individual level and collective efficacy to stop peer aggression at classroom level were associated with greater defending. We also found that greater moral disengagement and less (but very weakly) defender self-efficacy at individual level and less collective efficacy to stop peer aggression at classroom level were associated with greater reinforcing. The positive relationship between moral disengagement and reinforcing and the negative relationship between defender self-efficacy and reinforcing were less strong in classroom high in collective efficacy to stop aggression.

Predicting the development of pro-bullying bystander behavior: A short-term longitudinal analysis

Pro-bullying bystander behavior is a key socio-contextual factor underlying the perpetuation of bullying, yet investigators know relatively little as to what contributes to its development. The current study uses a short-term longitudinal design to identify child characteristics and relationship qualities that predict pro-bullying bystander behavior over the course of one school year. Participants were 484 children (239 girls; Mage = 10.25 years). Children completed self-report measures of pro-bullying bystander behavior, empathy, moral disengagement, and perceived norms for defending, and peer-report measures of peer victimization and popularity. Main effects of fall empathy and moral disengagement emerged in the prediction of spring pro-bullying bystander behavior, although the latter just for boys. At low levels of perceived norms for defending, high levels of popularity and, for girls, high levels of peer victimization predicted heightened pro-bullying bystander behavior. Thus, anti-bullying efforts may benefit from targeting these social-cognitive and relational processes predictive of pro-bullying bystander behavior and fostering group norms that mitigate these risks.

Trait anxiety and bystander motivation to defend victims of school bullying

INTRODUCTION

School-based bullying is an omnipresent problem, but is less frequent when bystanders are inclined to defend victims. This makes it important to focus on motivation to intervene in bullying.

METHODS

202 students (M_age = 16.44 years, 52% boys) from public Swedish high schools participated in a vignette experiment. Students were randomized to one of two vignettes (victim belonging to/not belonging to ingroup). Self-report measures of motivation to defend and trait anxiety were used.

RESULTS

Participants reported more autonomous motivation when the victim belonged to the ingroup and more extrinsic motivation when the victim did not belong to the ingroup. Trait anxiety interacted with the manipulation: bystanders high in anxiety reported low levels of autonomous motivation when the victim did not belong to the ingroup and low levels of extrinsic motivation when the victim belonged to the ingroup.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that anti-bullying-programs should focus on how defender motivation is influenced by the way in which victim ingroup status is perceived and address the bystander's level of anxiety as this interacts with such perceptions.

Individual and Classroom Social-Cognitive Processes in Bullying: A Short-Term Longitudinal Multilevel Study

The aim of this study was to examine whether individual and classroom collective social-cognitive processes (moral disengagement and self-efficacy) were associated with bullying perpetration among schoolchildren. An additional aim was to examine whether changes in these processes from grade 4 (Time 1) to grade 5 (Time 2) were associated with a change in bullying perpetration. Self-reported survey data were collected from 1,250 Swedish students from 98 classrooms. Results of multilevel analysis indicated that individual and classroom collective moral disengagement (CMD) were positively associated with bullying, and defender self-efficacy (DSE) was negatively associated with bullying. The effect of changes in individual moral disengagement on changes in bullying was positive, and the effects of changes in DSE and classroom collective efficacy on changes in bullying were negative. Thus, the findings demonstrate the changeability of moral disengagement, DSE and collective efficacy over time, and how these changes are linked to changes in bullying perpetration.

What Antibullying Program Designs Motivate Student Intervention in Grades 5 to 8?

Educators detect and intervene in a small proportion of bullying incidents. Although students are present when many bullying episodes occur, they are often reluctant to intervene. This study explored attributes of antibullying (AB) programs influencing the decision to intervene. Grade 5, 6, 7, and 8 students (N = 2,033) completed a discrete choice experiment examining the influence of 11 AB program attributes on the decision to intervene. Multilevel analysis revealed 6 latent classes. The Intensive Programming class (28.7%) thought students would intervene in schools with daily AB activities, 8 playground supervisors, mandatory reporting, and suspensions for perpetrators. A Minimal Programming class (10.3%), in contrast, thought monthly AB activities, 4 playground supervisors, discretionary reporting, and consequences limited to talking with teachers would motivate intervention. Membership in this class was linked to Grade 8, higher dispositional reactance, more reactance behavior, and more involvement as perpetrators. The remaining 4 classes were influenced by different combinations of these attributes. Students were more likely to intervene when isolated peers were included, other students intervened, and teachers responded quickly. Latent class analysis points to trade-offs in program design. Intensive programs that encourage intervention by students with little involvement as perpetrators may discourage intervention by those with greater involvement as perpetrators, high dispositional reactance, or more reactant behavior.

Parenting Style and Reactive and Proactive Adolescent Violence: Evidence from Spain

The aim of the present study was to analyze the relationship between the parenting styles—authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful—and reactive and proactive school violence among peers. These analyses were also performed by sex and age groups. The sample consisted of 2399 Spanish adolescents (50.2% male), aged between 12 and 18 years, mean (M) = 14.69, standard deviation (SD) = 1.82. A multivariate analisys of variance (MANOVA, 4 × 2 × 2) was applied, considering parenting style, sex, and age group (12–14 and 15–18 years) as independent variables to analyze the possible effects of interaction. Reactive, proactive, and pure violence were the dependent variables. The results showed the main effects of parenting styles, sex, and age, as well as an interaction between sex, age, and parenting styles. The interpretation of the findings suggested that the authoritarian parenting style was related to greater engagement in proactive and reactive violent behaviors. In relation to the effect of the interaction between sex, age, and parenting styles, it was observed that adolescents from indulgent families, of both sexes and in any of the studied age groups, obtained lower scores in proactive violence. The discussion highlights the importance of affection and warmth for well-adjusted children’s behavior.

Authoritative classroom climate and its relations to bullying victimization and bystander behaviors

Authoritative school climates have been associated with less school bullying and other antisocial behaviors. However, studies focusing on the classroom level, as well as on bystander behaviors, are lacking. The aim of the current study was to examine whether authoritative classroom climates were associated with bullying victimization and various bystander behaviors (reinforcer, outsider, and defender behaviors) in school bullying. We included gender as a covariate at the individual and classroom levels. Participants were 1540 5th-grade students (824 girls) from 104 classrooms in Sweden who completed a questionnaire. The findings revealed that girls and students in classes with greater authoritative classroom climates were more inclined to defend. Boys reinforced more as did students in classes with more boys and more authoritative classroom climates. Boys showed more outsider behaviors as did students in classes with less authoritative classroom climates. Students in classrooms with less authoritative climates were victimized to a higher degree. Thus, the current findings suggest that a warm, caring, supportive, controlled, demanding, and cohesive classroom climate should be considered a vital protective factor against bullying victimization and negative bystander responses, and a facilitator of defending and supporting victims.

Trajectories of Social and Emotional Competencies according to Cyberbullying Roles: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis

Current cyberbullying literature lacks longitudinal studies clarifying its predictors and consequences. This 1-year longitudinal study investigated how social and emotional competencies develop according to Portuguese middle school students' involvement in cyberbullying, and whether class size influences this relationship. There were 455 participants (M_age = 12.58; SD = 0.94; 46% girls), and data collection through self-reports took place in three different moments during 12 months. The results showed that students involved in cyberbullying in any role displayed negative trajectories during 1 year in self-control and social awareness, while victims and bully-victims displayed a more pronounced decrease in self-esteem and relationship skills during the same period. Additionally, girls displayed higher initial social awareness levels, while larger classes were associated with higher levels of self-control and responsible decision making. These results supported the importance of conducting longitudinal research and using a multilevel approach to address this topic.

Involvement in Bullying During High School: A Survival Analysis Approach

Knowledge about the risks of bullying involvement during any year of high school is an important element of interventions for changing the likelihood of being bullied. Three cohorts of Australian students (n = 1,382) were tracked from 7th grade to 11th grade. The study showed that some students continue their involvement in bullying, while in addition, new bullies and new victims emerge during each high school year. The findings indicated that the risk of bullying involvement ranged from 16% (as a bully) to 36% (as a victim), increasing to 54.5% and 56.3%, respectively, if a student was a bully or a victim in 7th grade. The risk to students of becoming victims, bullies, or bully-victims in each year of high school suggests that bullying prevention initiatives should be designed to suit students at different stages of adolescent development.

Changes in Bullying in Relation to Friends, Competitiveness, and Self-Worth

The relationship between social-emotional experiences — number of friends, competitiveness, and self-worth — and changes in bullying behaviour was investigated among students in Grades 5 to 7. This two-wave study included 235 students for the first data collection and 237 students for the second data collection, with a final sample of 227 students who had participated at both time points. Following Zumbo, results of multiple regression analyses, using residualized difference scores, indicated that changes in the school variables (number of friends, competitiveness, and self-worth) were associated with changes in reported bullying behaviour from the middle to the end of the school year. In particular, children’s beliefs about their self-worth were important in predicting changes in bullying behaviour, with increased self-worth being associated with a decrease in reported bullying behaviour.

KiVa Anti-Bullying Program in Italy: Evidence of Effectiveness in a Randomized Control Trial

The present study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the KiVa anti-bullying program in Italy through a randomized control trial of students in grades 4 and 6. The sample involved 2042 students (51 % female; grade 4, mean age = 8.85; ds = 0.43; grade 6, mean age = 10.93; ds = 0.50); 13 comprehensive schools were randomly assigned into intervention (KiVa) or control (usual school provision) conditions. Different outcomes (bullying, victimization, pro-bullying attitudes, pro-victim attitudes, empathy toward victims), analyses (longitudinal mixed model with multiple-item scales; longitudinal prevalence of bullies and victims using Olweus' single question), and estimates of effectiveness (Cohen's d; odds ratios) were considered in order to compare the Italian results with those from other countries. Multilevel models showed that KiVa reduced bullying and victimization and increased pro-victim attitudes and empathy toward the victim in grade 4, with effect sizes from 0.24 to 0.40. In grade 6, KiVa reduced bullying, victimization, and pro-bullying attitudes; the effects were smaller as compared to grade 4, yet significant (d ≥ 0.20). Finally, using Olweus dichotomous definition of bullies and victims, results showed that the odds of being a victim were 1.93 times higher for a control student than for a KiVa student in grade 4. Overall, the findings provide evidence of the effectiveness of the program in Italy; the discussion will focus on factors that influenced successfully the transportability of the KiVa program in Italy.

Factors associated with bystander behaviors of Korean youth in school bullying situations: A cross-sectional study

The behaviors of bystanders can have important effects on their peers. The aim of this study was to identify psychosocial and contextual factors associated with 3 types of bystander behavior (bully followers, outsiders, and defenders of victims) among Korean youth. A descriptive and cross-sectional study was conducted among 416 7th and 8th-grade students from 1 middle school in Korea. The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, the Korean version of the Social Problem-Solving Inventory, and measurements of relationships with friends and teachers, empathy, concerns about being bullied, attitudes toward bullying, and bystander behaviors were all used in the assessment. Empathy, relationship of teachers, attitudes toward bullying, and concerns about being bullied were significantly associated with all 3 types of bystanders' behaviors. Although, self-esteem, social problem solving ability were significantly associated with just defender of victim behaviors. These results suggest that several significant factors to cultivate constructive bystander behaviors should be considered to develop effective antibullying intervention.

Classroom relationship qualities and social-cognitive correlates of defending and passive bystanding in school bullying in Sweden: A multilevel analysis

Using the social-ecological and social cognitive theories as integrated guiding frameworks, the present study examined whether moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy at the individual level, and moral disengagement, quality of teacher-student relationships and quality of student-student relationships at the classroom level were associated with passive bystanding and defending in bullying situations. Participants were 900 Swedish students from 43 classrooms, ranging in age from 9 to 13years. Multilevel regression analyses revealed that passive reactions by bystanders were associated with greater moral disengagement and less defender self-efficacy. Defending, in turn, was associated with less moral disengagement and greater defender self-efficacy and classroom student-student relationship quality. Furthermore, students who scored high in moral disengagement were even less prone to defend victims when the classroom student-student relationship quality was low, but more prone to act as defenders when the classroom student-student relationship quality was high. In addition, the negative association between defender self-efficacy and passive bystanding was stronger both in classrooms with higher student-student relationship quality and in those with lower class moral disengagement. Implications for prevention are discussed.

Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions

During the school years, bullying is one of the most common expressions of violence in the peer context. Research on bullying started more than forty years ago, when the phenomenon was defined as 'aggressive, intentional acts carried out by a group or an individual repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him- or herself'. Three criteria are relevant in order to define aggressive behaviour as bullying: (1) repetition, (2) intentionality and (3) an imbalance of power. Given these characteristics, bullying is often defined as systematic abuse of power by peers. It is recognised globally as a complex and serious problem. In the present paper, we discuss the prevalence, age and gender differences, and various types of bullying, as well as why it happens and how long it lasts, starting from the large surveys carried out in western countries and to a lower extent in low- and middle-income countries. The prevalence rates vary widely across studies; therefore, specific attention will be devoted to the definition, time reference period and frequency criterion. We will also focus on risk factors as well as short- and long-term outcomes of bullying and victimisation. Finally, a section will be dedicated to review what is known about effective prevention of bullying.

Peer victimization in adolescence: The nature, progression, and consequences of being bullied within a developmental context

Since Dan Olweus's seminal work on bullying in the 1970's (Olweus, 1978), there has been a concerted effort by investigators to identify the confluence of factors that contribute to peer victimization and its role in psychosocial development. Although the cause and consequences of peer victimization may include underlying, age-invariant processes, the manifestation of these factors is, in part, driven by the developmental stage being studied. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of peer victimization requires an explicit developmental perspective. This paper examines how peer victimization in adolescence is unique from other developmental periods. Changes in the nature of peer victimization, associated risk factors, the contexts in which victimization is experienced, and the psychosocial outcomes affected are addressed. A primary focus is how maturational processes and interpersonal contexts characteristic of adolescence contribute to changes in victimization, with the objective of informing future research directions and the development of effective interventions.

Early adolescents' motivations to defend victims in school bullying and their perceptions of student-teacher relationships: A self-determination theory approach

The aim of this study was to investigate whether various dimensions of student-teacher relationships were associated with different types of motivation to defend victims in bullying and to determine the association between these types of motivations and various bystander behaviors in bullying situations among early adolescents in Italy. Data were collected from 405 Italian adolescents who completed a survey in their classroom. Results showed that warm student-teacher relationships were positively associated with defending victims and with autonomous motivation to defend victims. In contrast, conflictual student-teacher relationships were positively associated with passive bystanding and with extrinsic motivation to defend victims. Different forms of motivation to defend were found to be mediators between student-teacher relationship qualities and bystander behaviors in school bullying. Our findings suggest that teachers should build warm and caring student-teacher relationships to enhance students' autonomous motivation to defend victims of bullying as well as their inclination to defend the victims in practice.

Evidence-based intervention against bullying and cyberbullying: Evaluation of the NoTrap! program in two independent trials

The NoTrap! (Noncadiamointrappola!) program is a school-based intervention, which utilizes a peer-led approach to prevent and combat both traditional bullying and cyberbullying. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of the third Edition of the program in accordance with the recent criteria for evidence-based interventions. Towards this aim, two quasi-experimental trials involving adolescents (age M = 14.91, SD = .98) attending their first year at different high schools were conducted. In Trial 1 (control group, n = 171; experimental group, n = 451), latent growth curve models for data from pre-, middle- and post-tests showed that intervention significantly predicted change over time in all the target variables (victimization, bullying, cybervictimization, and cyberbullying). Specifically, target variables were stable for the control group but decreased significantly over time for the experimental group. Long-term effects at the follow up 6 months later were also found. In Trial 2 (control group, n = 227; experimental group, n = 234), the moderating effect of gender was examined and there was a reported decrease in bullying and cyberbullying over time (pre- and post-test) in the experimental group but not the control group, and this decrease was similar for boys and girls.