Mediated effects of perceived discrimination on adolescent academic achievement: A test of four models

Relation Between the Negative Cognitive Triad, Perceived Everyday Discrimination, Depressive Symptoms, and TNF-⍺ in Adolescents

Our study is guided by Beck's cognitive stress-vulnerability model of depression. We examined the associations between perceived everyday discrimination (PED) and TNF-⍺, an inflammatory biomarker associated with risk for severe illness, through the negative cognitive triad (NCT; negative thoughts about the self, world, and future) and depressive symptoms in adolescents. We utilized a sample of 99 adolescents (36.4% female; ages 13-16, M = 14.10, SD = 0.52) in our cross-sectional study. We used PROCESS and AMOS to compute regressions and direct, indirect, and total effects of PED, NCT aspects and depressive symptoms on TNF-⍺. Negative views of the self and world mediated between PED and depressive symptoms and that negative views of the self and future mediated between PED and TNF-⍺. In conclusion, Beck's theory can be expanded to physical health providing directions for addressing mental and physical health simultaneously by restructuring adolescents' negative view of the self.

Family poverty and adolescents' cognitive and noncognitive outcomes: Evidence from China

Using data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) during the 2013-2014 academic year, this paper examines the effects of family poverty on adolescents' cognitive and noncognitive outcomes. We find that family poverty is detrimental to adolescent development. Children from poor families have poorer academic performance and noncognitive abilities. We also find that the negative effects of family poverty are more pronounced among children with urban hukou, boys, and children from one-child families. Furthermore, we find that there are multiple channels behind the estimated effects, including parental educational expectations, parental education investments, and parent-child relationship. This paper opens up the "black box" of family poverty affecting children's development, which can provide reference for governments to design measures aimed at eliminating poverty trap.

Discrimination, cognitive styles, and their associations with adolescents' mental and physical health

This study is based on the hopelessness theory of depression and previous research on perceived everyday discrimination (PED) and both depressive symptoms and Interleukin-6 (an inflammatory cytokine; IL-6) in adolescents. The purpose of this study is to examine the negative attribution, self, and consequence cognitive styles (CSs) proposed in the hopelessness theory as a possible mechanism underlying the association between PED and inflammation in adolescents and expand our understanding of the comorbidities between depressive symptoms and systemic inflammation (IL-6). This cross-sectional study featured a sample of 102 adolescents aged 13-16 (M = 14.10, SD = 0.52) who identified as White (47.5%), Black (41.4%), Mixed Race (7.1%), Latino (2%), and other (2%). Data analysis was conducted using PROCESS to compute regressions and effects between PED, negative CSs, depressive symptoms, and Interleukin-6. Results showed that negative attribution CS is the only negative CS associated with PED, depressive symptoms, and IL-6. Negative attribution CS is also the only negative CS of the three negative CSs that mediates both the association between PED and depressive symptoms and PED and IL-6 in our adolescent sample. Overall, these results indicate that individual negative CSs proposed in the hopelessness theory impact adolescents' physical and mental outcomes differently, which can inform targeted treatments. Nurses should provide cognitive-based interventions and promote societal-level change to reduce the experience and impact of PED on the mental and physical health of their adolescent patients.

Household Income and Early Adolescents' Executive Function: The Different Roles of Perceived Discrimination and Shift-and-Persist

Household income predicts early adolescents' cognitive development. However, the mechanism underlying this association and protective factors are unclear. This study assessed one-year longitudinal data to examine whether perceived discrimination mediated the association between household income and executive function and the moderating role of shift-and-persist. 344 early adolescents in rural China were included in the study (mean = 10.88 years, SD = 1.32 years, girls: 51.74%). The latent variable model revealed that household income predicted early adolescents' cognitive flexibility and working memory in the subsequent year through perceived discrimination. Shift-and-persist moderated the negative effects of perceived discrimination on cognitive flexibility: perceived discrimination impeded cognitive flexibility only among early adolescents with low shift-and-persist. The findings highlight perceived discrimination in the relation between household income and early adolescents' executive function and underscore the protective role of shift-and-persist.

Role of Dysfunctional Attitudes in the Association Between Discrimination and Adolescents' Mental and Physical Health

Our study is based on Beck's cognitive stress-vulnerability theory of depression and research on (a) disparities in elevated blood pressure between adolescents from minority and majority backgrounds, (b) the effects of perceived everyday discrimination (PED) on depression and elevated blood pressure, and (c) the associations between depression and cardiovascular diseases. The purpose of our study is to integrate Beck's model and the different research lines by examining the associations of the stressor PED and depressive symptoms with blood pressure through the cognitive vulnerability of dysfunctional attitudes in adolescents. In our cross-sectional study, 97 adolescents (40% female) aged 13 to 15 (M = 14.15, SD = .53) who identified as Black (47.5%), white (47.5%), and mixed race (5%) completed self-reports of PED, dysfunctional attitudes, and depressive symptoms and had their blood pressure measured. We used the PROCESS command tool for SPSS to compute OLS regressions and direct, indirect, and total effects of PED, dysfunctional attitudes, and depressive symptoms on blood pressure. As predicted, our analyses revealed that PED predicts dysfunctional attitudes and depressive symptoms, dysfunctional attitudes predict marginally significant depressive symptoms and significantly systolic blood pressure. Our findings highlight the relevance of PED and dysfunctional attitudes for adolescents mental (i.e., depressive symptoms) and physical health (i.e., blood pressure). If this pattern is replicated, systemic interventions to reduce PED and individual interventions to address dysfunctional attitudes in adolescents could be promising to improve both mental (i.e., depressive symptoms) and physical health (i.e., BP).

Perceived Discrimination Among Adolescents in Ireland

Adolescents belonging to minority or marginalized groups often experience discrimination, which may negatively affect their mental and physical health. Using the dataset of the 2018 Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study, we analyzed perceived discrimination based on various grounds in four minority groups of schoolchildren in Ireland: sexual minority youth, youth living with a disability or chronic condition, immigrant youth, and youth belonging to the Traveller community. To minimize the potential confounding effect of psycho-social contextual factors, we used a case-control matching approach, comparing minority groups with their non-minority peers matched by gender, age group, and social class. Minority groups were significantly more likely than their matched non-minority counterparts to report discrimination, not only on the basis of their minority status but also on other grounds. These associations varied in their effect size. We discuss educational and policy implications of the findings for reducing discrimination and structural stigma in school settings.

Longitudinal associations between academic achievement and depressive symptoms in adolescence: Methodological considerations and analytical approaches for identifying temporal priority

Failure to meet educational expectations in adolescence can derail an individual's potential, leading to hardship in adulthood. Lower academic achievement is also associated with poorer mental health, and both share common pathways to adult functional outcomes like employment status and economic security. Although linked in adolescence, and predictive of similar outcomes in adulthood, methodological and analytical limitations of the literature do not permit the assessment of the temporal priority between academic achievement and mental health. This omission of directionality hampers intervention and prevention efforts. In this narrative review, we summarize the literature on the temporal ordering between academic achievement and depressive symptoms in adolescence, a particularly vulnerable developmental period. We propose methodological and analytical strategies to guide future research to disentangle the chronological ordering between academic achievement and depressive symptoms-recommendations that can be used to examine other sets of correlated variables over time. Specifically, we highlight methodological issues that require attention such as the need to understand reciprocal and cascading influences over time by attending to repeated measures and timing, measurement consistency, reporter effects, examination of processes and mechanisms, and missing data. Finally, we discuss the need to embrace analytical methods that separate within-person from between-person effects; account for heterogeneity in associations using person-centered approaches; and use the two approaches as complementary, rather than competing, for a more holistic examination of temporality.

Predicting Adolescent Internet Gaming Addiction from Perceived Discrimination, Deviant Peer Affiliation and Maladaptive Cognitions in the Chinese Population: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study

A robust positive association between perceived discrimination and Internet gaming addiction (IGA) among adolescents has been demonstrated by existing research; however, the mediating mechanisms underlying this relationship remain largely unknown. This study, grounded in the cognitive–behavioral and social development models, examined whether deviant peer affiliation and maladaptive cognitions mediated the predictive effect of perceived discrimination on adolescent IGA. Six-hundred-and-sixty students (Mean_age = 13.43 years; 367 female participants) recruited from southern China participated in four assessments (fall 7th grade, spring 7th grade, fall 8th grade, spring 8th grade). Participants completed a self-administered questionnaire that assessed their demographics, as well as questionnaire measures of perceived discrimination, deviant peer affiliation, maladaptive cognitions, and IGA. The structural equation model showed that fall 7th grade’s perceived discrimination positively predicted spring 7th grade’s deviant peer affiliation, which, in turn, increased fall 8th grade’s maladaptive cognitions, ultimately increasing spring 8th grade’s IGA. Moreover, the indirect effect of fall 7th grade’s perceived discrimination on spring 8th grade’s IGA via spring 7th grade’s deviant peer affiliation was also significant. The results suggested deviant peer affiliation and maladaptive cognitions as potential mediating mechanisms linking perceived discrimination to adolescent IGA. These findings have important implications for the prevention and intervention of adolescent IGA.

Engagement Coping Responses to Adolescents' Negative Racialized Experiences

This study examined thematic patterns of parents' engaged coping messages in response to their adolescents' negative race-based experiences. Ten focus groups were conducted with 73 Black parents from a Southeastern city (73% female). Using modified grounded theory, narratives that supported adolescent engaged coping were coded for three ethnic-racial socialization messages, the perpetrator, and the setting, followed by inductive (open) coding. The majority of experiences were school-related. Themes were informed by parents' critical engagement, ethnic-racial socialization, and engaged racial coping. Findings revealed that parents advised a repertoire of engaged coping strategies, from actively confronting interpersonal perpetrators (e.g., peers), to critically engaging with institutional perpetrators. Strategies to develop adolescents' critical reflection and anti-racism actions to dismantle racism across contexts are discussed.

Immigrant adolescents' perceptions of cultural pluralism climate: Relations to self-esteem, academic self-concept, achievement, and discrimination

A cultural pluralism climate values differences between groups and fosters learning about different cultures. This study investigated the relation between four facets of cultural pluralism climate (learning about multicultural topics, learning about intercultural relations, interest shown by teachers, interest shown by non‐immigrant students) and immigrant students’ self‐esteem, academic self‐concept, achievement and perceived discrimination. We furthermore tested whether academic self‐concept, self‐esteem, and perceived discrimination mediated the relation between the four facets and achievement. Relying on a sample of 700 immigrant students (M_age = 12.62 years; SD = 1.12; 45.4% female) from 87 Austrian secondary school classes, all effects were estimated at two levels (L1, individual student level; L2, classroom level) in multilevel mediation models. It was shown that learning about multicultural topics and intercultural relations, and interest shown by teachers positively predicted academic self‐concept and self‐esteem at L1. Learning about intercultural relations negatively predicted discrimination at L1. At L2, learning about intercultural relations positively predicted academic self‐concept and negatively predicted perceived discrimination. None of the facets predicted achievement at L1 and L2. However, academic self‐concept (positively) and self‐esteem (negatively) fully mediated the effect of learning about multicultural topics, learning about intercultural relations, and interest shown by teachers on achievement at L1.

Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: The Association Between Child and Adolescent Depression and Later Educational Attainment

OBJECTIVE

The association between depression and educational attainment in young people is unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the longitudinal association between depression and subsequent attainment, and its potential effect modifiers and mediators.

METHOD

We searched Embase, PsycINFO, PubMed, ERIC, and the British Education Index from inception to October 23, 2019, conducted citation searching, and contacted authors for articles. Eligible studies reported on the longitudinal association between depression in children and adolescents 4 to 18 years of age and later educational attainment. Two reviewers independently conducted screening, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment. Correlation coefficients were pooled in meta-analysis, and effect modifiers were explored using meta-regression and stratification. Other evidence on confounders, modifiers, and mediators was narratively synthesized. The PROSPERO record for the study is CRD42019123068.

RESULTS

A total of 31 studies were included, of which 22 were pooled in meta-analysis. There was a small but statistically significant association between depression and lower subsequent attainment (pooled Fisher z = -0.19, 95% CI = -0.22 to -0.16, I2 = 62.9%). A total of 15 studies also reported an enduring effect after adjusting for various confounders. No statistically significant effect modifiers were identified. Social and school problems may mediate between depression and low attainment.

CONCLUSION

Depression was associated with lower educational attainment, but further research is needed to establish mechanisms. Nonetheless, there is a clear need for mental health and educational support among children and adolescents with depression.

The effects of teacher discrimination on depression among migrant adolescents: Mediated by school engagement and moderated by poverty status

Although discrimination has been validated to be negatively related to mental health, little is known about the effect of hukou-based discrimination by teachers on depression among migrant adolescents in China. The mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this association are also unknown. Based on a nationally representative sample of migrant adolescents, this study examined whether school engagement mediated the association between teacher discrimination and depression, and whether the direct and mediating effects were moderated by poverty. Our sample comprised 2041 migrant adolescents (46.2% female) from the first two waves of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS). The results indicated that teacher discrimination (T1) was positively associated with depression (T2). Emotional engagement with school (T1) rather than cognitive engagement with school (T1) partially mediated this association. Moreover, poverty status moderated the direct association between teacher discrimination and migrant adolescents' depression as well as the indirect relationship via emotional school engagement. Specifically, the direct and indirect effects were stronger for migrant adolescents living in poverty than they were for their non-impoverished counterparts. Contributions and implications of this study are discussed.