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Jin Q, Ren F, Song P. Innovate therapeutic targets for autoimmune diseases: insights from proteome-wide mendelian randomization and Bayesian colocalization. Autoimmunity 2024; 57:2330392. [PMID: 38515381 DOI: 10.1080/08916934.2024.2330392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite growing knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases (ADs) onset, the current treatment remains unsatisfactory. This study aimed to identify innovative therapeutic targets for ADs through various analytical approaches. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Utilizing Mendelian randomization, Bayesian co-localization, phenotype scanning, and protein-protein interaction network, we explored potential therapeutic targets for 14 ADs and externally validated our preliminary findings. RESULTS This study identified 12 circulating proteins as potential therapeutic targets for six ADs. Specifically, IL12B was judged to be a risk factor for ankylosing spondylitis (p = 1.61E - 07). TYMP (p = 6.28E - 06) was identified as a protective factor for ulcerative colitis. For Crohn's disease, ERAP2 (p = 4.47E - 14), HP (p = 2.08E - 05), and RSPO3 (p = 6.52E - 07), were identified as facilitators, whereas FLRT3 (p = 3.42E - 07) had a protective effect. In rheumatoid arthritis, SWAP70 (p = 3.26E - 10), SIGLEC6 (p = 2.47E - 05), ISG15 (p = 3.69E - 05), and FCRL3 (p = 1.10E - 10) were identified as risk factors. B4GALT1 (p = 6.59E - 05) was associated with a lower risk of Type 1 diabetes (T1D). Interestingly, CTSH was identified as a protective factor for narcolepsy (p = 1.58E - 09) but a risk factor for T1D (p = 7.36E - 11), respectively. External validation supported the associations of eight of these proteins with three ADs. CONCLUSIONS Our integrated study identified 12 potential therapeutic targets for ADs and provided novel insights into future drug development for ADs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiubai Jin
- Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feihong Ren
- Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Graduate school, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Ping Song
- Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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2
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Randolph HE, Aracena KA, Lin YL, Mu Z, Barreiro LB. Shaping immunity: The influence of natural selection on population immune diversity. Immunol Rev 2024; 323:227-240. [PMID: 38577999 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Humans exhibit considerable variability in their immune responses to the same immune challenges. Such variation is widespread and affects individual and population-level susceptibility to infectious diseases and immune disorders. Although the factors influencing immune response diversity are partially understood, what mechanisms lead to the wide range of immune traits in healthy individuals remain largely unexplained. Here, we discuss the role that natural selection has played in driving phenotypic differences in immune responses across populations and present-day susceptibility to immune-related disorders. Further, we touch on future directions in the field of immunogenomics, highlighting the value of expanding this work to human populations globally, the utility of modeling the immune response as a dynamic process, and the importance of considering the potential polygenic nature of natural selection. Identifying loci acted upon by evolution may further pinpoint variants critically involved in disease etiology, and designing studies to capture these effects will enrich our understanding of the genetic contributions to immunity and immune dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley E Randolph
- Committee on Genetics, Genomics, and Systems Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Yen-Lung Lin
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Zepeng Mu
- Committee on Genetics, Genomics, and Systems Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Luis B Barreiro
- Committee on Genetics, Genomics, and Systems Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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3
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Jia K, Shen J. Transcriptome-wide association studies associated with Crohn's disease: challenges and perspectives. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:29. [PMID: 38403629 PMCID: PMC10895848 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01204-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Crohn's disease (CD) is regarded as a lifelong progressive disease affecting all segments of the intestinal tract and multiple organs. Based on genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and gene expression data, transcriptome-wide association studies (TWAS) can help identify susceptibility genes associated with pathogenesis and disease behavior. In this review, we overview seven reported TWASs of CD, summarize their study designs, and discuss the key methods and steps used in TWAS, which affect the prioritization of susceptibility genes. This article summarized the screening of tissue-specific susceptibility genes for CD, and discussed the reported potential pathological mechanisms of overlapping susceptibility genes related to CD in a certain tissue type. We observed that ileal lipid-related metabolism and colonic extracellular vesicles may be involved in the pathogenesis of CD by performing GO pathway enrichment analysis for susceptibility genes. We further pointed the low reproducibility of TWAS associated with CD and discussed the reasons for these issues, strategies for solving them. In the future, more TWAS are needed to be designed into large-scale, unified cohorts, unified analysis pipelines, and fully classified databases of expression trait loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keyu Jia
- Laboratory of Medicine, Baoshan Branch, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Nephrology department, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1058 Huanzhen Northroad, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jun Shen
- Laboratory of Medicine, Baoshan Branch, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Nephrology department, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1058 Huanzhen Northroad, Shanghai, 200444, China.
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Digestive Diseases, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Baoshan Branch, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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4
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Callaway E. Did the Black Death shape the human genome? Study challenges bold claim. Nature 2024:10.1038/d41586-024-00137-1. [PMID: 38233555 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-024-00137-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
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5
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Venema WJ, Hiddingh S, van Loosdregt J, Bowes J, Balliu B, de Boer JH, Ossewaarde-van Norel J, Thompson SD, Langefeld CD, de Ligt A, van der Veken LT, Krijger PHL, de Laat W, Kuiper JJW. A cis-regulatory element regulates ERAP2 expression through autoimmune disease risk SNPs. CELL GENOMICS 2024; 4:100460. [PMID: 38190099 PMCID: PMC10794781 DOI: 10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) near the ERAP2 gene are associated with various autoimmune conditions, as well as protection against lethal infections. Due to high linkage disequilibrium, numerous trait-associated SNPs are correlated with ERAP2 expression; however, their functional mechanisms remain unidentified. We show by reciprocal allelic replacement that ERAP2 expression is directly controlled by the splice region variant rs2248374. However, disease-associated variants in the downstream LNPEP gene promoter are independently associated with ERAP2 expression. Allele-specific conformation capture assays revealed long-range chromatin contacts between the gene promoters of LNPEP and ERAP2 and showed that interactions were stronger in patients carrying the alleles that increase susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Replacing the SNPs in the LNPEP promoter by reference sequences lowered ERAP2 expression. These findings show that multiple SNPs act in concert to regulate ERAP2 expression and that disease-associated variants can convert a gene promoter region into a potent enhancer of a distal gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter J Venema
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sanne Hiddingh
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jorg van Loosdregt
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - John Bowes
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics Versus Arthritis, Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Brunilda Balliu
- Department of Computational Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joke H de Boer
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Susan D Thompson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Carl D Langefeld
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, and Center for Precision Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Aafke de Ligt
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lars T van der Veken
- Department of Genetics, Division Laboratories, Pharmacy and Biomedical Genetics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Peter H L Krijger
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Wouter de Laat
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jonas J W Kuiper
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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6
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Raja A, Kuiper JJW. Evolutionary immuno-genetics of endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase II (ERAP2). Genes Immun 2023; 24:295-302. [PMID: 37925533 PMCID: PMC10721543 DOI: 10.1038/s41435-023-00225-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 2 (ERAP2) is a proteolytic enzyme involved in adaptive immunity. The ERAP2 gene is highly polymorphic and encodes haplotypes that confer resistance against lethal infectious diseases, but also increase the risk for autoimmune disorders. Identifying how ERAP2 influences susceptibility to these traits requires an understanding of the selective pressures that shaped and maintained allelic variation throughout human evolution. Our review discusses the genetic regulation of haplotypes and diversity in naturally occurring ERAP2 allotypes in the global population. We outline how these ERAP2 haplotypes evolved during human history and highlight the presence of Neanderthal DNA sequences in ERAP2 of modern humans. Recent evidence suggests that human adaptation during the last ~10,000 years and historic pandemics left a significant mark on the ERAP2 gene that determines susceptibility to infectious and inflammatory diseases today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aroosha Raja
- Department of Ophthalmology, Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jonas J W Kuiper
- Department of Ophthalmology, Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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7
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Vilgalys TP, Klunk J, Demeure CE, Cheng X, Shiratori M, Madej J, Beau R, Elli D, Patino MI, Redfern R, DeWitte SN, Gamble JA, Boldsen JL, Carmichael A, Varlik N, Eaton K, Grenier JC, Golding GB, Devault A, Rouillard JM, Yotova V, Sindeaux R, Ye CJ, Bikaran M, Dumaine A, Brinkworth JF, Missiakas D, Rouleau GA, Steinrücken M, Pizarro-Cerdá J, Poinar HN, Barreiro LB. Reply to Barton et al: signatures of natural selection during the Black Death. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.06.535944. [PMID: 37066254 PMCID: PMC10104142 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.06.535944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Barton et al.1 raise several statistical concerns regarding our original analyses2 that highlight the challenge of inferring natural selection using ancient genomic data. We show here that these concerns have limited impact on our original conclusions. Specifically, we recover the same signature of enrichment for high FST values at the immune loci relative to putatively neutral sites after switching the allele frequency estimation method to a maximum likelihood approach, filtering to only consider known human variants, and down-sampling our data to the same mean coverage across sites. Furthermore, using permutations, we show that the rs2549794 variant near ERAP2 continues to emerge as the strongest candidate for selection (p = 1.2×10-5), falling below the Bonferroni-corrected significance threshold recommended by Barton et al. Importantly, the evidence for selection on ERAP2 is further supported by functional data demonstrating the impact of the ERAP2 genotype on the immune response to Y. pestis and by epidemiological data from an independent group showing that the putatively selected allele during the Black Death protects against severe respiratory infection in contemporary populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tauras P Vilgalys
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jennifer Klunk
- McMaster Ancient DNA Centre, Departments of Anthropology, Biology and Biochemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S4L9
- Daicel Arbor Biosciences, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Christian E Demeure
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR6047, Yersinia Research Unit, Microbiology Department, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Xiaoheng Cheng
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mari Shiratori
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Julien Madej
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR6047, Yersinia Research Unit, Microbiology Department, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Rémi Beau
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR6047, Yersinia Research Unit, Microbiology Department, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Derek Elli
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Lemont, IL, USA
| | - Maria I Patino
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rebecca Redfern
- Centre for Human Bioarchaeology, Museum of London, London, UK, EC2Y 5HN
| | - Sharon N DeWitte
- Department of Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Julia A Gamble
- Department of Anthropology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T2N2
| | - Jesper L Boldsen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Unit of Anthropology (ADBOU), University of Southern Denmark, Odense S, 5260, Denmark
| | - Ann Carmichael
- History Department, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Nükhet Varlik
- Department of History, Rutgers University-Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Katherine Eaton
- McMaster Ancient DNA Centre, Departments of Anthropology, Biology and Biochemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S4L9
| | - Jean-Christophe Grenier
- Montreal Heart Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H1T 1C7
| | - G Brian Golding
- McMaster Ancient DNA Centre, Departments of Anthropology, Biology and Biochemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S4L9
| | | | - Jean-Marie Rouillard
- Daicel Arbor Biosciences, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Vania Yotova
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H3T 1C5
| | - Renata Sindeaux
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H3T 1C5
| | - Chun Jimmie Ye
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matin Bikaran
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Anne Dumaine
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jessica F Brinkworth
- Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Carl R Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Dominique Missiakas
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Lemont, IL, USA
| | - Guy A Rouleau
- Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 2B4
| | - Matthias Steinrücken
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Javier Pizarro-Cerdá
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR6047, Yersinia Research Unit, Microbiology Department, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Hendrik N Poinar
- McMaster Ancient DNA Centre, Departments of Anthropology, Biology and Biochemistry, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S4L9
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Lemont, IL, USA
| | - Luis B Barreiro
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Centre for Human Bioarchaeology, Museum of London, London, UK, EC2Y 5HN
- Department of Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T2N2
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Currenti J, Simmons J, Oakes J, Gaudieri S, Warren CM, Gangula R, Alves E, Ram R, Leary S, Armitage JD, Smith RM, Chopra A, Halasa NB, Pilkinton MA, Kalams SA. Tracking of activated cTfh cells following sequential influenza vaccinations reveals transcriptional profile of clonotypes driving a vaccine-induced immune response. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1133781. [PMID: 37063867 PMCID: PMC10095155 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1133781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction A vaccine against influenza is available seasonally but is not 100% effective. A predictor of successful seroconversion in adults is an increase in activated circulating T follicular helper (cTfh) cells after vaccination. However, the impact of repeated annual vaccinations on long-term protection and seasonal vaccine efficacy remains unclear. Methods In this study, we examined the T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire and transcriptional profile of vaccine-induced expanded cTfh cells in individuals who received sequential seasonal influenza vaccines. We measured the magnitude of cTfh and plasmablast cell activation from day 0 (d0) to d7 post-vaccination as an indicator of a vaccine response. To assess TCR diversity and T cell expansion we sorted activated and resting cTfh cells at d0 and d7 post-vaccination and performed TCR sequencing. We also single cell sorted activated and resting cTfh cells for TCR analysis and transcriptome sequencing. Results and discussion The percent of activated cTfh cells significantly increased from d0 to d7 in each of the 2016-17 (p < 0.0001) and 2017-18 (p = 0.015) vaccine seasons with the magnitude of cTfh activation increase positively correlated with the frequency of circulating plasmablast cells in the 2016-17 (p = 0.0001) and 2017-18 (p = 0.003) seasons. At d7 post-vaccination, higher magnitudes of cTfh activation were associated with increased clonality of cTfh TCR repertoire. The TCRs from vaccine-expanded clonotypes were identified and tracked longitudinally with several TCRs found to be present in both years. The transcriptomic profile of these expanded cTfh cells at the single cell level demonstrated overrepresentation of transcripts of genes involved in the type-I interferon pathway, pathways involved in gene expression, and antigen presentation and recognition. These results identify the expansion and transcriptomic profile of vaccine-induced cTfh cells important for B cell help.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Currenti
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Joshua Simmons
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Jared Oakes
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Silvana Gaudieri
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Christian M. Warren
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Rama Gangula
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Eric Alves
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Ramesh Ram
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Shay Leary
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Jesse D. Armitage
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Rita M. Smith
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Abha Chopra
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Natasha B. Halasa
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Mark A. Pilkinton
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Spyros A. Kalams
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
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