Perioperative body temperature maintenance and occurrence of surgical site infection: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Optimizing Surgical Site Infection Prevention in Dermatologic Surgery

We aim to review modifiable risk factors and practices for surgical site infections (SSIs) reduction in cutaneous surgeries. The existing norms are assessed with the latest evidence, with the aim of enhancing and optimizing intra and postoperative strategies. This review seeks to offer an updated summary of the results of evidence for SSI reduction strategies tailored for practicing general dermatologists. Searches were conducted for "cutaneous surgery surgical site infection complications" using PubMed Central® and DynaMed®. Articles with pragmatic guideline recommendations were selected. We found evidence for intraoperative factors such as non-sterile gloves, brushless hand scrubbing/simple hand washing, sterile materials, and chlorhexidine gluconate as a skin antiseptic. For postoperative factors, there is a lack of evidence to support the use of topical antibiotic ointments, dressings, or waiting 48 hours before wetting to prevent SSI. Several intra/postoperative factors not specific to dermatologic procedures are briefly discussed for additional context. Several SSI risk factors are inherent to patients or necessary procedures; however, dermatologists have identified modifiable risk factors and developed protocols to mitigate SSI risks intraoperatively and postoperatively. By questioning established practices in cutaneous surgery aimed at preventing SSIs, we can work towards the optimal utilization of resources. This dual-focused approach not only enhances the efficiency of the healthcare system but also diminishes the risks associated with SSIs. It is important to acknowledge that this review does not encompass all factors essential for consideration in these recommendations. Nonetheless, it will approach these factors with an evidence-based lens, placing SSI prevention at the forefront.

Current Approaches on Nurse-Performed Interventions to Prevent Healthcare-Acquired Infections: An Umbrella Review

To analyze nursing interventions for preventing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), major complications in acute care impacting length of stay, costs, morbidity, and mortality, an umbrella review was conducted between 1 February and 26 February 2024, following the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and PRISMA reporting guidelines, resulting in the inclusion of 22 articles. The 22 final articles obtained addressed the following Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) categories: surgical site infections (e.g., skin antisepsis, antibiotic prophylaxis), catheter-related bloodstream infections (e.g., taurolidine lock solutions), ventilator-associated pneumonia (e.g., oral hygiene, semi-recumbent positioning), and catheter-associated urinary tract infections (e.g., catheter duration management). Using Neuman's holistic framework, the review emphasized patient-environment interactions. Further primary research is needed to refine these interventions and enhance interprofessional care. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42024506801).

Hypothermia: Pathophysiology and the propensity for infection

Hypothermia in combination with infection presents a complex challenge in clinical and battlefield medicine. Multifaceted physiological and immunological consequences of hypothermia drastically change the risk, progression, and treatment of a concomitant infection. Managing hypothermia and infection in extreme cold settings is particularly relevant in an era with increased risk of military operations in Polar climates. Here, we discuss the elevated instance of infection during accidental and therapeutic hypothermia and speculate how a compromised immune system may contribute. We focus on skin and soft tissue infections and sepsis, which are among the serious infectious complications of hypothermia and battlefield injuries. We also present the challenges associated with treating infections under hypothermic conditions. Finally, we advocate for a renewed focus on identifying causal relationships between hypothermia and infection risk and assessing established infection treatment regiments in hypothermic patients to enhance trauma management and survival outcomes in hypothermia-related injuries.

Barriers and facilitators to evidence-based perioperative hypothermia management for orthopaedic patients: A systematic review

AIM

To assess barriers and facilitators to the implementation of guidelines for the prevention of inadvertent perioperative hypothermia in orthopaedic patients.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

DATA SOURCES

Nine databases: PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Cochrane CENTRAL, PsycINFO, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Scopus, Web of Science and Trip Clinical Evidence Database.

METHODS

Primary studies published in English between January 2008 to July 2022 were screened. Study selection, quality assessment, and data extraction were completed independently by researchers. Data were extracted using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research and mapped to the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change strategies.

RESULTS

Eighty-seven studies were included in the review. The most frequently reported barriers and facilitators related to evidence strength, relative advantage, and cost of implementing perioperative hypothermia prevention guidelines. The top four ERIC strategies were: Identify and prepare champions; Conduct educational meetings; Assess for readiness and identify barriers and facilitators; and Inform local opinion leaders.

CONCLUSION

This review provides synthesized evidence regarding barriers and facilitators to perioperative hypothermia guidelines for patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION AND PATIENT CARE

Our work provides theory guided strategies to promote implementation of perioperative hypothermia prevention to assist nurses caring for patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery.

IMPACT

Findings provide professionals caring for patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery with theory-informed strategies to improve perioperative hypothermia prevention. Reducing perioperative hypothermia will improve outcomes for patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery.

REPORTING METHOD

The review is reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020.

NO PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONSULTATION

Due to the study design, no patient or public consultation took place.

The role of warmed-humidified carbon dioxide insufflation in colorectal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Maintenance of normothermia is a crucial part of enhanced recovery after colorectal surgery. Dry-cold carbon dioxide (CO2 ) traditionally used for insufflation in laparoscopic surgery and negative pressure operating theatres has been associated with intraoperative hypothermia. Studies suggest that use of warmed-humidified CO2 may promote normothermia. However, due to a scarcity of high-quality studies demonstrating a proven benefit on intraoperative core body temperature, its use in colorectal surgery remains limited. Therefore, the aim of this review was to evaluate the effects of warmed-humidified CO2 compared to traditional dry-cold CO2 , or ambient air in operating theatres, during colorectal surgery.

METHODS

A search of Medline, EMBASE, and CENTRAL was performed. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that compared patients receiving warmed-humidified CO2 with either dry-cold CO2 insufflation in laparoscopic procedures or no insufflation during open surgery were included. The primary outcome was change in intraoperative core body temperature. Secondary outcomes included length of stay, operating time, return of gastrointestinal function, wound infection, and postoperative pain. A pairwise meta-analysis was performed using inverse variance random effects.

RESULTS

Among the six RCTs included, 208 patients received warmed-humidified CO2 (42.3% female, mean age: 65.8 years) and 210 patients received either dry-cold CO2 in laparoscopic procedures or no gas insufflation during open procedures (46.2% female, mean age: 66.1 years). No significant difference was found for change in intraoperative core body temperature (MD = 0.01, 95% CI: -0.1, 0.11, p = 0.90, very low certainty). Patients in the warmed-humidified CO2 group had significantly higher pain scores on postoperative day 1 (MD = 1.61, 95% CI: 0.91, 2.31, p < 0.05, very low certainty). No significant differences were found in any of the other secondary outcomes studied.

CONCLUSION

Patients undergoing colorectal surgery receiving warmed-humidified CO2 do not experience any clinically meaningful difference in core body temperature change compared to their counterparts receiving dry-cold CO2 insufflation or no insufflation. However, patients may report greater pain scores on postoperative day 1 with warmed-humidified CO2 . There is likely no clinically important difference between warmed-humidified CO2 and dry-cold CO2 for patients undergoing colorectal surgery. Patient, clinician, and institution factors should be considered when deciding between these two insufflation modalities.

Accuracy of a Dual-Sensor Heat-Flux (DHF) Non-Invasive Core Temperature Sensor in Pediatric Patients Undergoing Surgery

Accurate temperature measurement is crucial for the perioperative management of pediatric patients, and non-invasive thermometry is necessary when invasive methods are infeasible. A prospective observational study was conducted on 57 patients undergoing elective surgery. Temperatures were measured using a dual-sensor heat-flux (DHF) thermometer (Tcore™) and a rectal temperature probe (TRec), and the agreement between the two measurements was assessed. The DHF measurements showed a bias of +0.413 °C compared with those of the TRec. The limits of agreement were broader than the pre-defined ±0.5 °C range (-0.741 °C and +1.567 °C). Although the DHF sensors tended to overestimate the core temperature compared to the rectal measurements, an error grid analysis demonstrated that 95.81% of the DHF measurements would not have led to a wrong clinical decision, e.g., warming or cooling when not necessary. In conclusion, the low number of measurements that would have led to incorrect decisions suggests that the DHF sensor can be considered an option for continuous temperature measurement when more invasive methods are infeasible.

Prevalence of surgical site infections after open reduction and internal fixation for mandibular fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Our study aims to estimate the prevalence of surgical site infections (SSI) following open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) for mandibular fractures and to determine the effect of potential moderators on it. A systematic literature search (Medline and Scopus databases) was conducted independently by two reviewers. The pooled prevalence with 95% confidence intervals was estimated. Quality assessment as well as outlier and influential analysis were performed. Additionally, subgroup and meta-regression analysis were conducted in order the effect of categorical and continuous variables on the estimated prevalence to be investigated. In total, seventy-five eligible studies (comprising a sum of 5825 participants) were included in this meta-analysis. The overall prevalence of SSI following ORIF for mandibular fractures was estimated as high as 4.2% (95% CI 3.0-5.6%) with significant heterogeneity between studies. One study was identified to be critically influential. In the subgroup analysis, the prevalence was 4.2% (95% CI 2.2-6.6%) among studies conducted in Europe, 4.3% (95% CI 3.1-5.6%) among studies conducted in Asia and higher among those conducted in America (7.3%) (95% CI 4.7-10.3%). It is important for healthcare professionals to be aware of the etiology of these infections, despite the relatively low rate of SSI in these procedures. However, further, well-designed prospective and retrospective studies need to be conducted in order this issue to be fully clarified.

A qualitative study of nurse-perceived barriers to body temperature management in postoperative patients

Although evidence-based practices exist for preventing hypothermia in patients during surgery, few studies have focused on this concern in postoperative patients. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore the most challenging issues experienced by surgical ward nurses while managing the body temperature of adult surgical patients. To address this research gap, this study used a qualitative descriptive design to document barriers to body temperature management as reported by a sample of 16 perioperative nurses. The semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using inductive content analysis. The main barriers fell into three categories: professional nursing ability limitations, unfavourable working conditions and management of human resources. The eight subcategories were disadvantageous professional views, professional knowledge limitations, low motivation to provide nursing care, non-standard treatment environment, inadequate equipment and care protocols, heavy nursing care loads, inadequate staff training and ineffective staff supervision. These findings highlighted the importance of adequate resources, proper education and evidence-based care protocols in the effective delivery of body temperature management to postoperative patients.

The effects of prolonged intraoperative hypothermia on patient outcomes in immediate implant-based breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

The importance of thermoregulation in surgical procedures has become a recent focus for anesthesiologists and surgeons to improve patient outcomes. In breast surgery, maintenance of normothermia has been shown to reduce surgical-site infections. However, there is a paucity of information evaluating the relationship between intraoperative core body temperatures and reconstructive surgical outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective review of patients who underwent immediate breast reconstruction following mastectomy from 2015 to 2020 was performed. Patients were classified into a majority normothermic (NT) group if patients spent greater than half of the operative time ≥36 °C or a majority hypothermic (HT) group if patients spent greater than or equal to half of the operative time <36 °C. Patient demographics, comorbidities, surgical techniques, and postoperative complications were recorded. Complications were classified according to the Clavien-Dindo Classification. Univariate and multivariate statistics were used to assess significant relationships.

RESULTS

A total of 329 patients met inclusion criteria, of which 174 were in the NT group and 155 were in the HT group, yielding 302 and 264 total breasts, respectively. There was no significant difference in rates of infection (p = 1.0), seroma (p = 0.27), hematoma (p = 0.61), or wound dehiscence (p = 1.0). However, patients in the HT group had significantly more overall ischemic complications (p = 0.009) and, specifically, grade IIIb ischemic complications (p = 0.04). After controlling for tobacco use, body mass index, mastectomy pattern, radiation, operating surgeon, and mastectomy weight, multivariate analysis showed increased ischemic complications in the HT group (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

Prolonged intraoperative hypothermia can increase the risk for the development of ischemic wounds such as tissue necrosis or eschar formation that require operative intervention. This presents reconstructive complications that increase both patient and health system burdens that could be addressed through the maintenance of normothermia. Further studies using real-time flap temperature would provide more accurate insight into the relationship between temperature and implant-based breast reconstruction.

Evaluation of Postoperative Warming Care Protocol for Thermal Comfort and Temperature Management Immediately After Surgery: Nonrandomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the effects of a warming care protocol (WCM) on temperature control and thermal comfort perception in hypothermia following major abdominal surgery.

DESIGN

A prospective nonrandomized controlled trial.

METHODS

A total of 54 patients undergoing major abdominal surgery were assigned to receive routine care (control group, 27 patients) or the WCM (intervention group, 27 patients). The body temperature (core and peripheral) was measured, and physical symptoms were monitored every hour for 4 hours after arriving at the ward and then every 4 hours for up to 12 hours.

FINDINGS

The temperature gap, calculated as the difference between the core and skin temperatures, was similar between the control and intervention groups at the end of surgery. However, the temperature gap in the intervention group decreased within 3 hours after arrival at the ward and remained lower than that in the control group. The visual analog scale score for postoperative thermal discomfort was significantly lower in the intervention group than in the control group, indicating achievement of higher comfort with the warming intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients were warmed using active warming methods under the WCM, which in turn increased the thermal comfort perception with the body temperature. Postoperative patients often require warming care for thermal comfort, which may be improved by proper observation and management within 1 to 2 hours postoperatively. Our results indicate that nurses could effectively warm the patient to maintain normal body temperature following surgery not only to improve thermal comfort, but also to prevent shivering and possibly various postoperative complications.

Graphene-Enhanced Polydimethylsiloxane Patch for Wearable Body Temperature Remote Monitoring Application

In this work, we designed and implemented a wearable body temperature monitoring device, which was constructed by a graphene-enhanced polydimethylsiloxane patch and a temperature measurement chip. The body temperature patch adopts a completely flexible solution in combination with near field communication component, which provides the advantages of passive wireless, overall flexibility, and being comfortable to wear. The whole device can be bent and stretched in conformal contact with skin. In order to improve the temperature conduction ability of the patch and make the patch data more accurate, we adopted graphene nanoplates to improve the thermal conductivity of polydimethylsiloxane patch with a significant thermal conductivity increase of 23.8%. With the combination of hollow sandwich structure and small dimension. it will reduce the uncomfortable situation of wearing the device for extended periods and can be served to monitor the human body temperature for a long time. Ultimately, this device is combined with a reading software for analyzing and processing on a smart mobile terminal. The real-time and past temperature range can be a pre-warning; meanwhile, the historical data can be traced and analyzed. Therefore, this device can be utilized in multiple human body temperature measurement scenarios and complex public health situations.

Nosocomial Extracardiac Infections After Cardiac Surgery

Purpose of Review

Nosocomial extracardiac infections after cardiac surgery are a major public health issue affecting 3–8.2% of patients within 30–60 days following the intervention.

Recent Findings

Here, we have considered the most important postoperative infective complications that, in order of frequency, are pneumonia, surgical site infection, urinary tract infection, and bloodstream infection. The overall picture that emerges shows that they cause a greater perioperative morbidity and mortality with a longer hospitalization time and excess costs. Preventive interventions and corrective measures, diminishing the burden of nosocomial extracardiac infections, may reduce the global costs. A multidisciplinary team may assure a more appropriate management of nosocomial extracardiac infections leading to a reduction of hospitalization time and mortality rate.

Summary

The main and most current data on epidemiology, prevention, microbiology, diagnosis, and management for each one of the most important postoperative infective complications are reported. The establishment of an antimicrobial stewardship in each hospital seems to be, at the moment, the more valid strategy to counteract the challenging problems.

Prevention of Orthopedic Prosthetic Infections Using Evidence-Based Surgical Site Infection Care Bundles: A Narrative Review

Background: The number of primary/revision total joint replacements (TJR) are expected to increase substantially with an aging population and increasing prevalence of comorbid conditions. The 30-day re-admission rate, in all orthopedic specialties, is 5.4% (range, 4.8%-6.0%). A recent publication has documented that the surgical site infection (SSI) infection rate associated with revision total knee (rTKR, 15.6%) and revision total hip (rTHR, 8.6%) arthroplasties are four to seven times the rate of the primary procedures (2.1%-2.2%). These orthopedic infections prolong hospital stays, double re-admissions, and increase healthcare costs by a factor of 300%. Methods: A search of PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library publications, which reported the infection risk after TKR and THR, was undertaken (January 1, 1995 to December 31, 2021). The search also included documentation of evidence-based practices that lead to improved post-operative outcomes. Results: The evidence-based approach to reducing the risk of SSI was grouped into pre-operative, peri-operative, and post-operative periods. Surgical care bundles have existed within other surgical disciplines for more than 20 years, although their use is relatively new in peri-operative orthopedic surgical care. Pre-admission chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) showers/cleansing, staphylococcal decolonization, maintenance of normothermia, wound irrigation, antimicrobial suture wound closure, and post-operative wound care has been shown to improve clinical outcome in randomized controlled studies and meta-analyses. Conclusions: Evidence-based infection prevention care bundles have improved clinical outcomes in all surgical disciplines. The significant post-operative morbidity, mortality, and healthcare cost, associated with SSIs after TJR can be reduced by introduction of evidence-based pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative interventions.

Prediction nomogram for evaluating the probability of postoperative fever in children with acute appendicitis

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to establish a predictive model of postoperative fever in children with acute appendicitis through retrospective analysis, and the prediction ability of the model is demonstrated by model evaluation and external validation.

METHODS

Medical records information on children undergoing surgery for acute appendicitis within 2 years were retrospectively collected, prospective collection was performed for external validation in the next 3 months. The patients were divided into two groups according to whether the postoperative body temperature exceeded 38.5°C. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine independent risk factors and develop regression equations and nomogram. ROC curve, calibration curve and decision curve were made for model evaluation. Finally, the clinical implication of the prediction model was clarified by associating postoperative fever with prognosis.

RESULTS

High risk factors of postoperative fever included in the prediction model were onset time (X1), preoperative temperature (X2), leukocyte count (X3), C-reactive protein (X4) and operation time (X5). The regression equation is logit (P) = 0.005X1+0.166X2+0.056X3+0.004X4+0.005X5-9.042. ROC curve showed that the area under the curve (AUC) of the training set was 0.660 (0.621, 0.699), and the AUC of the verification set was 0.712 (0.639, 0.784). The calibration curve suggested that the prediction probability was close to the actual probability. Decision curve analysis (DCA) showed that patients could benefit from clinician's judgment. Furthermore, prognostic analysis showed children presenting with postoperative fever had the more duration of postoperative fever, hospitalization stays and cost, except for rehospitalization.

CONCLUSION

All the results revealed that the model had good predictive ability. Pediatricians can calculate the probability of postoperative fever and make timely interventions to reduce pain for children and parents.

Development and internal validation of an algorithm to predict intraoperative risk of inadvertent hypothermia based on preoperative data

Intraoperative hypothermia increases perioperative morbidity and identifying patients at risk preoperatively is challenging. The aim of this study was to develop and internally validate prediction models for intraoperative hypothermia occurring despite active warming and to implement the algorithm in an online risk estimation tool. The final dataset included 36,371 surgery cases between September 2013 and May 2019 at the Vienna General Hospital. The primary outcome was minimum temperature measured during surgery. Preoperative data, initial vital signs measured before induction of anesthesia, and known comorbidities recorded in the preanesthetic clinic (PAC) were available, and the final predictors were selected by forward selection and backward elimination. Three models with different levels of information were developed and their predictive performance for minimum temperature below 36 °C and 35.5 °C was assessed using discrimination and calibration. Moderate hypothermia (below 35.5 °C) was observed in 18.2% of cases. The algorithm to predict inadvertent intraoperative hypothermia performed well with concordance statistics of 0.71 (36 °C) and 0.70 (35.5 °C) for the model including data from the preanesthetic clinic. All models were well-calibrated for 36 °C and 35.5 °C. Finally, a web-based implementation of the algorithm was programmed to facilitate the calculation of the probabilistic prediction of a patient's core temperature to fall below 35.5 °C during surgery. The results indicate that inadvertent intraoperative hypothermia still occurs frequently despite active warming. Additional thermoregulatory measures may be needed to increase the rate of perioperative normothermia. The developed prediction models can support clinical decision-makers in identifying the patients at risk for intraoperative hypothermia and help optimize allocation of additional thermoregulatory interventions.

Resistant fabric warming is a viable alternative to forced-air warming to prevent inadvertent perioperative hypothermia during hemiarthroplasty in the elderly

BACKGROUND

Surgical site infection (SSI) is associated with inadvertent perioperative hypothermia (IPH). This can be prevented by active patient warming. However, results from comparisons of warming techniques are conflicting. They are based mostly on elective surgery, are from small numbers of patients, and are dominated by the market leader, forced-air warming (FAW). Furthermore, the definition of hypothermia is debatable and systematic reviews of warming systems conclude that a stricter control of temperature is required to study the benefits of warming.

AIM

To analyse core temperatures in detail in a large subset of elderly patients who took part in a randomized trial of patient warming following hemiarthroplasty who had received constant zero-flux thermometry to record their temperature.

METHODS

Regression models with a fixed effect for warming group and covariates related to temperature were compared for 257 participants randomized to FAW or resistant fabric warming (RFW) from a prior clinical trial.

FINDINGS

Those in the RFW group were -0.08°C cooler and had a cumulative hypothermia score -1.87 lower than those in the FAW group. There was no difference in the proportion of hypothermic patients at either <36.5°C or <36.0°C.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to provide accurate temperature measurements in patients undergoing a procedure predominantly under regional rather than general anaesthetic. It shows that RFW is a viable alternative to FAW for preventing IPH during hemiarthroplasty. Further studies are needed to measure the benefits of patient warming in terms of clinically important outcomes.

Optimal Application of Forced Air Warming to Prevent Peri-Operative Hypothermia during Abdominal Surgery: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Patients who undergo abdominal surgery under general anesthesia develop hypothermia in 80–90% of the cases within an hour after induction of anesthesia. Side effects include shivering, bleeding, and infection at the surgical site. However, the surgical team applies forced air warming to prevent peri-operative hypothermia, but these methods are insufficient. This study aimed to confirm the optimal application method of forced air warming (FAW) intervention for the prevention of peri-operative hypothermia during abdominal surgery. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to provide a synthesized and critical appraisal of the studies included. We used PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library CENTRAL to systematically search for randomized controlled trials published through March 2020. Twelve studies were systematically reviewed for FAW intervention. FAW intervention effectively prevented peri-operative hypothermia among patients undergoing both open abdominal and laparoscopic surgery. Statistically significant effect size could not be confirmed in cases of only pre- or peri-operative application. The upper body was the primary application area, rather than the lower or full body. These findings could contribute detailed standards and criteria that can be effectively applied in the clinical field performing abdominal surgery.