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Genetic Mechanisms of Vancomycin Resistance in Clostridioides difficile: A Systematic Review. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11020258. [PMID: 35203860 PMCID: PMC8868222 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance to treatments for Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) poses a significant threat to global health. C. difficile is widely thought to be susceptible to oral vancomycin, which is increasingly the mainstay of CDI treatment. However, clinical labs do not conduct C. difficile susceptibility testing, presenting a challenge to detecting the emergence and impact of resistance. In this systematic review, we describe gene determinants and associated clinical and laboratory mechanisms of vancomycin resistance in C. difficile, including drug-binding site alterations, efflux pumps, RNA polymerase mutations, and biofilm formation. Additional research is needed to further characterize these mechanisms and understand their clinical impact.
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Xiaoting W, Chengcheng N, Chunhui J, Yan L, Jing L, Qingling M, Jun Q, Lixia W, Kuojun C, Jinsheng Z, Zaichao Z, Weiwei Y, Yelong P, Xuepeng C. Antimicrobial resistance profiling and molecular typing of ruminant-borne isolates of Clostridium perfringens from Xinjiang, China. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2021; 27:41-45. [PMID: 34438107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgar.2021.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) can cause intestinal diseases in livestock and humans, which seriously threatens the healthy development of animal husbandry and human food safety. Here, the characteristics of antimicrobial resistance and molecular typing of ruminant-borne strains of C. perfringens in Xinjiang, China were explored and profiled. METHODS A total of 307 clinical feces collected from ruminants (cattle and sheep) with diarrheal symptoms were screened for C. perfringens. The recovered isolates were characterized in respect to their antimicrobial resistance pattern and molecular typing. RESULTS A total of 109 isolates of C. perfringens were isolated from 307 clinical feces of ruminants, most of which displayed the multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype. Demonstration of the quinolone-resistance gene was the highest among the isolates (70.6%). The multiplex PCR typing based on toxin genes showed that type A and type D strains made up 82.6% (90/109) and 17.4% (19/109), among which, the isolates carrying β2 gene occupied 43.3% (39/90) of type A strains and 31.6% (6/19) of type D strains. These isolates were divided into 6 genotypes (I-VI) by enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence-based PCR (ERIC-PCR) method. A total of 33 ST types (ST1-ST33) were identified by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) method. CONCLUSION C. perfringens isolates with multidrug resistance (MDR) were frequent and circulating in ruminants. Among them, type A-Ⅰ-ST19 was the dominant genotype of C. perfringens, displaying obvious genetic diversity. This study provided important epidemiological data for the risk assessment of food safety associated with ruminant-borne C. perfringens in Xinjiang, China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Xiaoting
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China; Department of Animal Laboratory, Chifeng Municipal Hospital, Chifeng, Inner Mongolia, 024000, China
| | - Ning Chengcheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Ji Chunhui
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Li Yan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Li Jing
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Meng Qingling
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Qiao Jun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China.
| | - Wang Lixia
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, 832003, China
| | - Cai Kuojun
- Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Urumqi, Xinjiang, 830000, China
| | - Zhang Jinsheng
- Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Tacheng, Xinjiang, 834700, China
| | - Zhang Zaichao
- Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Changji, Xinjiang, 831500, China
| | - Yu Weiwei
- Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Korla, Xinjiang, 841000, China
| | - Peng Yelong
- Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Aksu, Xinjiang, 8430000, China
| | - Cai Xuepeng
- State Key Lab of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, China
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Archambault M, Rubin JE. Antimicrobial Resistance in Clostridium and Brachyspira spp. and Other Anaerobes. Microbiol Spectr 2020; 8:10.1128/microbiolspec.arba-0020-2017. [PMID: 31971162 PMCID: PMC10773235 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.arba-0020-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
This article describes the antimicrobial resistance to date of the most frequently encountered anaerobic bacterial pathogens of animals. The different sections show that antimicrobial resistance can vary depending on the antimicrobial, the anaerobe, and the resistance mechanism. The variability in antimicrobial resistance patterns is also associated with other factors such as geographic region and local antimicrobial usage. On occasion, the same resistance gene was observed in many anaerobes, whereas some were limited to certain anaerobes. This article focuses on antimicrobial resistance data of veterinary origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Archambault
- Département de Pathologie et Microbiologie, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Joseph E Rubin
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan S7N 5B4, Canada
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Ma YH, Ye GS. Determination of multidrug resistance mechanisms in Clostridium perfringens type A isolates using RNA sequencing and 2D-electrophoresis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 51:e7044. [PMID: 29898034 PMCID: PMC6002133 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20187044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we screened differentially expressed genes in a
multidrug-resistant isolate strain of Clostridium perfringens
by RNA sequencing. We also separated and identified differentially expressed
proteins (DEPs) in the isolate strain by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE)
and mass spectrometry (MS). The RNA sequencing results showed that, compared
with the control strain, 1128 genes were differentially expressed in the isolate
strain, and these included 227 up-regulated genes and 901 down-regulated genes.
Bioinformatics analysis identified the following genes and gene categories that
are potentially involved in multidrug resistance (MDR) in the isolate strain:
drug transport, drug response, hydrolase activity, transmembrane transporter,
transferase activity, amidase transmembrane transporter, efflux transmembrane
transporter, bacterial chemotaxis, ABC transporter, and others. The results of
the 2-DE showed that 70 proteins were differentially expressed in the isolate
strain, 45 of which were up-regulated and 25 down-regulated. Twenty-seven DEPs
were identified by MS and these included the following protein categories:
ribosome, antimicrobial peptide resistance, and ABC transporter, all of which
may be involved in MDR in the isolate strain of C. perfringens. The results
provide reference data for further investigations on the drug resistant
molecular mechanisms of C. perfringens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hua Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, China.,College of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Qinghai University, Xining, China
| | - Gui-Sheng Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, China.,College of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Qinghai University, Xining, China
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Ngernsombat C, Sreesai S, Harnvoravongchai P, Chankhamhaengdecha S, Janvilisri T. CD2068 potentially mediates multidrug efflux in Clostridium difficile. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9982. [PMID: 28855575 PMCID: PMC5577244 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10155-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and the treatment thereof becomes more difficult owing to a rise of multidrug resistant strains. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are known to play a crucial role in the resistance to multiple antibiotics. In this study, the potential contribution of an ABC transporter in C. difficile multidrug resistance was investigated. The expression level of the cd2068 gene in C. difficile encoding an ABC transporter was up-regulated following the exposure to certain antibiotics compared to the control cells. Heterologous expression of CD2068 in Escherichia coli revealed that it mediated the efflux of fluorescent substrates and conferred resistance to multiple drugs. The CD2068-associated ATPase activity in membrane vesicles was also stimulated by various antibiotics. Furthermore, the insertional inactivation of the cd2068 gene in C. difficile led to a significant increase in susceptibility to antibiotics, which could be genetically complemented, supporting that CD2068 was directly associated to the drug resistance. These results demonstrate the potential role for the ABC transporter CD2068 in the resistance mechanism against multiple drugs in C. difficile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chawalit Ngernsombat
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Suthasinee Sreesai
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Phurt Harnvoravongchai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | | | - Tavan Janvilisri
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
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Park M, Deck J, Foley SL, Nayak R, Songer JG, Seibel JR, Khan SA, Rooney AP, Hecht DW, Rafii F. Diversity of Clostridium perfringens isolates from various sources and prevalence of conjugative plasmids. Anaerobe 2015; 38:25-35. [PMID: 26608548 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an important pathogen, causing food poisoning and other mild to severe infections in humans and animals. Some strains of C. perfringens contain conjugative plasmids, which may carry antimicrobial resistance and toxin genes. We studied genomic and plasmid diversity of 145 C. perfringens type A strains isolated from soils, foods, chickens, clinical samples, and domestic animals (porcine, bovine and canine), from different geographic areas in the United States between 1994 and 2006, using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and/or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). MLVA detected the genetic diversity in a majority of the isolates. PFGE, using SmaI and KspI, confirmed the MLVA results but also detected differences among the strains that could not be differentiated by MLVA. All of the PFGE profiles of the strains were different, except for a few of the epidemiologically related strains, which were identical. The PFGE profiles of strains isolated from the same domestic animal species were clustered more closely with each other than with other strains. However, a variety of C. perfringens strains with distinct genetic backgrounds were found among the clinical isolates. Variation was also observed in the size and number of plasmids in the strains. Primers for the internal fragment of a conjugative tcpH gene of C. perfringens plasmid pCPF4969 amplified identical size fragments from a majority of strains tested; and this gene hybridized to the various-sized plasmids of these strains. The sequences of the PCR-amplified tcpH genes from 12 strains showed diversity among the tcpH genes. Regardless of the sources of the isolates, the genetic diversity of C. perfringens extended to the plasmids carrying conjugative genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miseon Park
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Joanna Deck
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Steven L Foley
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Rajesh Nayak
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | | | | | - Saeed A Khan
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Alejandro P Rooney
- Crop Protection Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - David W Hecht
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60126, USA
| | - Fatemeh Rafii
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, FDA, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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Abstract
Clostridia can cause unique histotoxic syndromes produced by specific toxins (e.g., gas gangrene and food poisoning) as well as non-syndromic infections (e.g., abscess, local infections, and blood born infection). Clostridia can also be recovered from various body sites as part of polymicrobial aerobic-anaerobic infection. These include intra-abdominal (peritonitis and abscess), biliary tract, female genital tract, abscess (rectal area and oropharyngeal), pleuropulmonary, central nervous system, and skin and soft-tissue infections. Clostridia were recovered from children with bacteremia of gastrointestinal origin, necrotizing enterocolitis, and sickle cell disease. They have also been isolated in acute and chronic otitis media, chronic sinusitis and mastoiditis, peritonsillar abscesses, and neonatal conjunctivitis. Early and aggressive surgical debridement, decompression, and drainage of affected tissues are critical to successful outcome of histotoxic infections. Effective antimicrobials include penicillin, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, third-generation cephalosporins, carbapenems, and vancomycin.
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Global Phenotypic Characterization of Effects of Fluoroquinolone Resistance Selection on the Metabolic Activities and Drug Susceptibilities of Clostridium perfringens Strains. Int J Microbiol 2014; 2014:456979. [PMID: 25587280 PMCID: PMC4283427 DOI: 10.1155/2014/456979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Revised: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluoroquinolone resistance affects toxin production of Clostridium perfringens strains differently. To investigate the effect of fluoroquinolone resistance selection on global changes in metabolic activities and drug susceptibilities, four C. perfringens strains and their norfloxacin-, ciprofloxacin-, and gatifloxacin-resistant mutants were compared in nearly 2000 assays, using phenotype microarray plates. Variations among mutant strains resulting from resistance selection were observed in all aspects of metabolism. Carbon utilization, pH range, osmotic tolerance, and chemical sensitivity of resistant strains were affected differently in the resistant mutants depending on both the bacterial genotype and the fluoroquinolone to which the bacterium was resistant. The susceptibilities to gentamicin and erythromycin of all resistant mutants except one increased, but some resistant strains were less susceptible to amoxicillin, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone, chloramphenicol, and metronidazole than their wild types. Sensitivity to ethidium bromide decreased in some resistant mutants and increased in others. Microarray analysis of two gatifloxacin-resistant mutants showed changes in metabolic activities that were correlated with altered expression of various genes. Both the chemical structures of fluoroquinolones and the genomic makeup of the wild types influenced the changes found in resistant mutants, which may explain some inconsistent reports of the effects of therapeutic use of fluoroquinolones on clinical isolates of bacteria.
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Abstract
Susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria recovered from selected cases can influence the choice of antimicrobial therapy. The Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) has standardized many laboratory procedures, including anaerobic susceptibility testing (AST), and has published documents for AST. The standardization of testing methods by the CLSI allows comparisons of resistance trends among various laboratories. Susceptibility testing should be performed on organisms recovered from sterile body sites, those that are isolated in pure culture, or those that are clinically important and have variable or unique susceptibility patterns. Organisms that should be considered for individual isolate testing include highly virulent pathogens for which susceptibility cannot be predicted, such as Bacteroides, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, and Clostridium spp.; Bilophila wadsworthia; and Sutterella wadsworthensis. This review describes the current methods for AST in research and reference laboratories. These methods include the use of agar dilution, broth microdilution, Etest, and the spiral gradient endpoint system. The antimicrobials potentially effective against anaerobic bacteria include beta-lactams, combinations of beta-lactams and beta-lactamase inhibitors, metronidazole, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, macrolides, tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones. The spectrum of efficacy, antimicrobial resistance mechanisms, and resistance patterns against these agents are described.
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Park M, Sutherland JB, Kim JN, Rafii F. Effect of Fluoroquinolone Resistance Selection on the Fitness of Three Strains of Clostridium perfringens. Microb Drug Resist 2013; 19:421-7. [DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2013.0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Miseon Park
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - John B. Sutherland
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Jong Nam Kim
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Fatemeh Rafii
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
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Abstract
A survey of the isolation of Clostridium spp. from 1543 specimens sent to anaerobic microbiology laboratories revealed 113 isolates from 107 specimens (7.0% of all specimens) from 96 children. The isolates comprised 43 (38%) unidentified Clostridium spp., 37 (33%) C. perfringens, 13 (12%) C. ramosum, five (4%) C. innocuum, six (5%) C. botulinum, three (3%) C. difficile, two (2%) C. butyricum, and one isolate each of C. bifermentans, C. clostridiiforme, C. limosum and C. paraputrificum. Most clostridial isolates were from abscesses (38), peritonitis (26), bacteraemia (10), and chronic otitis media (7). Predisposing or underlying conditions were present in 31 (32%) cases. These were immunodeficiency (12), malignancy (9), diabetes (7), trauma (7), presence of a foreign body (6) and previous surgery (6). The clostridia were the only bacterial isolates in 14 (15%) cases; 82 (85%) cases had mixed infection. The species most commonly isolated with clostridia were anaerobic cocci (57); Bacteroides spp. (B. fragilis group) (50), Escherichia coli (22), pigmented Prevotella or Porphyromonas spp. (18) and Fusobacterium spp. (10). Most Bacteroides and Escherichia coli isolates with clostridia were from abdominal infections and skin and soft tissue infections adjacent to the rectal area; most pigmented Prevotella and Porphyromonas isolates were from oropharyngeal, pulmonary, and head and neck sites. Antimicrobial therapy was given to all patients, in conjunction with surgical drainage in 34 (35%). Only two patients died. These data illustrate the importance of Clostridium spp. in paediatric infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Brook
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC
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