Health management of ewes during pregnancy

Using an Aqueous Suspension of Duddingtonia flagrans Chlamydospores and a Hexane Extract of Artemisia cina as Sustainable Methods to Reduce the Fecal Egg Count and Larvae of Haemonchus contortus in the Feces of Periparturient Ewes

This study evaluated the effectiveness of Duddingtonia flagrans chlamydospores and an Artemisia cina hexane extract in reducing Haemonchus contortus fecal egg counts and larvae in periparturient ewes. This study involved five groups of four ewes: a control group, an ivermectin group, an A. cina oral extract group, a D. flagrans group, and a combined treatment group. Treatments began two weeks before delivery, with ivermectin administered 15 days before delivery. Fecal samples were collected every fifteen days to estimate parasite egg counts per gram of feces (EPG) and assess larvae reductions. The results showed very low EPG values for ivermectin and D. flagrans treatments (175 and 150, respectively). The control and combined treatment groups had EPG values rise to 3000 and 4100 by day 15. The EPG values for the A. cina group reached 850 and 533 in later samplings. Throughout the study, the D. flagrans and A. cina groups maintained low EPG values, with the highest recorded values being 50 and 0, respectively. All treatments significantly reduced the larvae in the fecal cultures: D. flagrans (97.4% reduction), ivermectin (91.4%), Artemisia cina (89.9%), and the combined treatment (84.3%).

Relationship between rumen microbiota and pregnancy toxemia in ewes

Introduction

Pregnancy toxemia (PT) is a nutritional metabolic disease of ewes in late pregnancy. This study aimed to reveal the relationship between rumen microbiota and PT.

Methods

We selected 10 healthy ewes (CON) and 10 pregnancy toxemia ewes (PT) at 135 days of gestation according to the blood β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA), glucose (Glu) concentrations and clinical symptoms. Blood and rumen fluid were collected before morning feeding to determine serum biochemical indices and rumen fermentation parameters. Total DNA of rumen fluid was extracted and the V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA were amplified by PCR for high-throughput sequencing.

Results

The results showed that the serum concentrations of Glu, total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), uric acid (UA), creatinine (Cr), acetate, propionate, butyrate, and microbial crude protein (MCP) were decreased (p < 0.05) and the concentrations of BHBA, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), acetate to propionate ratio (A/P), and ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N)were higher (p < 0.05) in PT ewes than those in CON ewes. 16S rRNA analysis showed the differences of β-diversity were observed in rumen microbiota between CON and PT ewes. At the phylum level, the relative abundance of Bacteroidota and Proteobacteria were higher (p < 0.01), while Firmicutes was lower (p < 0.01) in PT ewes. At the genus level, the relative Prevotella, Butyrivibrio, Ruminococcus, Lachnospiraceae_AC2044_group, Lachnospiraceae_XPB1014_group, Lachnospiraceae_ND3007_group, and Oribacterium were lower (p < 0.01) in PT ewes. Meanwhile, the relative abundance of Oribacterium, Butyrivibrio, Ruminococcus, and Lachnospiraceae_AC2044_group were positively correlated (p < 0.01) with Glu, INS, acetate, propionate, and butyrate, and negatively correlated (p < 0.01) with BHBA, P, GC, AST, and A/P.

Discussion

In conclusion, the decrease of Oribacterium, Butyrivibrio, Ruminococcus, and Lachnospiraceae_AC2044_group in the rumen of PT ewes reduced the concentrations of volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) and serum Glu, and increased BHBA concentration, indicating that the differences in rumen bacteria genera were related to pregnancy toxemia of ewes.

Early-life milk replacer feeding mediates lipid metabolism disorders induced by colonic microbiota and bile acid profiles to reduce body weight in goat model

BACKGROUND

Dysregulation of lipid metabolism and its consequences on growth performance in young ruminants have attracted attention, especially in the context of alternative feeding strategies. This study aims to elucidate the effects of milk replacer (MR) feeding on growth, lipid metabolism, colonic epithelial gene expression, colonic microbiota composition and systemic metabolism in goat kids compared to breast milk (BM) feeding, addressing a critical knowledge gap in early life nutrition.

METHODS

Ten female goat kids were divided into 2 groups: those fed breast milk (BM group) and those fed a milk replacer (MR group). Over a period of 28 d, body weight was monitored and blood and tissue samples were collected for biochemical, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Profiling of the colonial microbiota was performed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Intestinal microbiota transplantation (IMT) experiments in gnotobiotic mice were performed to validate causality.

RESULTS

MR-fed pups exhibited reduced daily body-weight gain due to impaired lipid metabolism as evidenced by lower serum and liver total cholesterol (TC) and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations. Transcriptomic analysis of the colonic epithelium revealed upregulated genes involved in negative regulation of lipid metabolism, concomitant with microbiota shifts characterized by a decrease in Firmicutes and an increase in Actinobacteria. Specifically, genera such as Bifidobacterium and Prevotella were enriched in the MR group, while Clostridium and Faecalibacterium were depleted. Metabolomics analyses confirmed alterations in bile acid and fatty acid metabolic pathways. IMT experiments in mice recapitulated the metabolic phenotype observed in MR-fed goats, confirming the role of the microbiota in modulating host lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Milk replacer feeding in goat kids disrupts lipid metabolism and gut microbiota dynamics, resulting in reduced growth rates and metabolic alterations. These findings highlight the importance of early nutritional intervention on metabolic programming and suggest that modulation of the gut microbiota may be a target for improving growth and metabolic health in ruminants. This study contributes to the understanding of nutritional management strategies in livestock and their impact on animal health and productivity.

The effects of maternal calcium status during late gestation on lamb growth and survival in twin-bearing Merino ewes grazing pasture

Our project aimed to investigate whether low maternal calcium status during late gestation decreased weight, growth and survival of lambs born to twin-bearing Merino ewes grazing pasture. On day 130 of gestation, approximately a 10 mL blood sample was collected from 108 twin-bearing Merino ewes. Blood pH and calcium ion concentration were measured in whole blood and serum was analysed for calcium, magnesium, phosphate, beta hydroxy butyrate, non-esterified fatty acids and cholesterol. Six to 18 h after birth and at 49 days of age, lamb live weight was recorded. Ewe serum calcium level at day 130 of gestation were divided into tertiles (1.58-2.13, 2.14-2.30, and 2.31-2.99 mmol/L) with ewes classified as either Low, Med or High (n = 36 per group). A general linear mixed model was used to analyse the data. Survival to 1, 2, 3 and 7 days of age was lower for lambs born to ewes in the Low calcium group compared with those born in the Med and High calcium groups (P < 0.05). At day 49 of age, lamb survival tended to be lower for lambs in the Low (73.6%) compared with Med (86.8%) and High (85.3%) calcium groups (P < 0.1). There were no differences in lamb body weight (P > 0.05). Calcium levels of ewes in the Low calcium group were, on average, indicative of subclinical hypocalcaemia, with this group of ewes also having the lowest lamb survival rate, suggesting that maternal subclinical hypocalcaemia reduces lamb survival. Further studies, particularly on improving maternal calcium levels, are warranted.

Dairy goats helminthosis and its potential predictors in Greece: Findings from an extensive countrywide study

The objectives of the present study were: (a) to describe the prevalence of helminth infections from pooled faecal samples from goat herds across Greece, (b) to evaluate herd-related factors potentially associated with the presence of these infections in the herds and (c) to compare the findings to those of a previous relevant study performed in sheep flocks. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 119 goat herds around Greece. Helminths were recovered from samples from 93.3% of herds: Dicrocoelium dendriticum (from 15.1% of herds), Paramphistomum cervi (from 0.8% of herds), Moniezia spp. (from 25.2% of herds), Trichostrongylidae (from 89.1% of herds), Nematodirus spp. (from 16.8% of herds), Strongyloides papillosus (from 5.0% of herds), Trichuris spp. (from 18.5% of herds) and lungworms (from 23.5% of herds). Mean epg counts in all herds in the study were 219 epg. In multivariable analyses, for 'high (> 300) epg counts in faecal samples' the age of kid removal from their dams (p = 0.045) was found to be a significant factor, for 'high proportion (> 64%) of Teladorsagia spp. in faecal samples' the month of the start of the kidding season (p = 0.045) was a significant factor, for 'high proportion (> 27%) of Haemonchus contortus in faecal samples' nutritional modifications during gestation (p = 0.002) and application of reproductive control practices in the farm (p = 0.013) were the significant factors and for 'presence of D. dendriticum in faecal samples' the number of veterinary visits to the farm annually (p = 0.040) was found to be significant.

Pregnancy Toxemia in Sheep and Goats

Pregnancy toxemia is a common metabolic disease of late pregnant ewes and does, which potentially has devastating impacts on health and performance. This metabolic syndrome is not only one of over conditioned animals but is more typically associated with inadequate energy intake to support pregnancy requirements leading to body protein and fat mobilization. Blood chemistries provide insight into diagnosis and possibly may predict responsiveness to treatment and outcome. Early recognition of the disease with appropriate intervention is the best approach to minimizing the impact of this disease in the sheep flock or goat herd.

Pregnancy Toxemia in Ewes: A Review of Molecular Metabolic Mechanisms and Management Strategies

Pregnancy toxemia is a nutritional metabolic disease during late gestation in small ruminants. The condition is characterized by disorders in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Obese and multiparous ewes are particularly susceptible to pregnancy toxemia, which may lead to maternal death, abortion, or premature birth. Highly productive multiparous meat ewes are major breeding animals, which has led to an increased incidence of the disease. However, the pathogenesis of pregnancy toxemia remains unclear and adequate disease prevention and treatment strategies are absent. Investigating the pathogenesis of pregnancy toxemia, especially the metabolic pathways of hepatic lipids, is key to an improved understanding of the condition. This review provides a snapshot of the genes that are associated with lipid metabolism in the ovine liver, including genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, acetyl coenzyme metabolism, and triglyceride synthesis; describes the interrelationships between these genes; and summarizes the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of pregnancy toxemia.

Preventive herd management practices and their effect on lamb mortality in Ethiopia

According to previous studies, lamb mortality is high in the Ethiopian highlands. The present study aims to evaluate the execution of preventive sheep herd health management practices with respect to if, and how, such practices are linked to occurrence of lamb mortality. Interviews were performed with 74 sheep-owning households participating in a capacity development program on livestock and 69 households not participating in such program. To evaluate the impact of combinations of performed practices, a scoring system was developed-the households retrieved a higher score the more desired routines were accomplished. To identify which practices had the highest impact on lamb mortality, a similar score was calculated for each phase of the sheep reproductive year, creating sub-scores for each phase. The results showed a significant (p < 0.05) negative correlation between the total number of performed practices and occurrence of lamb mortality, indicating a lower occurrence of lamb mortality the more desired practices implemented. Further analysis of sub-scores showed significant (p < 0.05) negative correlations between a higher number of performed desired practices during gestation period and during lambing. Conclusively, the study indicates that preventive herd management routines are beneficial for lamb survival, foremost when enforced during the gestation period and around lambing-hence, this is where to focus future interventions.

Patterns of Reproductive Management in Sheep and Goat Farms in Greece

This paper reports findings regarding patterns of reproductive management in 325 sheep flocks and 119 goat herds throughout Greece. The objectives were to describe the patterns of reproductive management in sheep and goat farms, to highlight factors that were associated with these management patterns and the clinical application of the various reproductive management approaches in the farms and to establish potential associations with production outcomes. The median months of the start of the mating period for adult sheep and goats were May and June, respectively and for ewe lambs and replacement goats these were August and September, respectively. The median duration of the mating period was 2 months for adults and 1 month for replacements. The median ratio of female to male animals was 22:1 and 25:1 in sheep and goat farms, respectively. Control of reproduction was applied in 33.2% and 16.8% of sheep and goat farms, respectively, mostly by intravaginal progestagen sponges and less often by melatonin implants; multivariable analysis indicated five (availability of milking parlour, number of ewes in a farm, number of daily milkings, daily period spent by farmers at the farm, farming tradition in the family) and two (number of daily milkings, availability of milking parlour) predictors in sheep and goat farms, respectively. Pregnancy diagnosis ultrasonographically was performed in 36.6% and 16.8% of sheep and goat farms, respectively; multivariable analysis indicated as significant three (management system applied in farms, age of farmer, farming tradition in the family) and two (management system applied in farms, availability of milking parlour) predictors in sheep and goat farms, respectively. The control of reproduction and pregnancy diagnosis were associated with a higher number of vaccinations during pregnancy: 2.6 and 2.7, respectively, versus 2.2 and 2.1 in farms where they were not performed. The average per farm number of lambs/kids born per female animal was 1.33 ± 0.01 and 1.30 ± 0.02 for sheep and goat farms, respectively; five (control of reproduction, location of the farm, presence of working staff, collaboration with veterinary practice, breed of ewes) and two (control of reproduction, breed of female goats) predictors were identified in sheep and goat farms, respectively, for high numbers of lambs/kids. Lambs/kids were taken away from their dams at the age of 50 and 65 days, respectively. The average culling age (females, males) was 5.9 and 4.4 years and 6.9 and 4.9 years for sheep and goats, respectively. Farmers sourced animals to be used as replacements for those removed from the farm, mostly from the animals in their own farms, considering criteria related to milk production. Finally, the application of the control of reproduction was associated with increased milk production and the number of newborns, whilst an inverse correlation between the culling age of animals and milk production was seen.

Vaccination against Bacterial Mastitis in Sheep

The objective of this review is to discuss the application of vaccination for the prevention of bacterial mastitis in ewes, performed within the frame of health management schemes in sheep flocks. Mastitis is a multi-faceted infection, caused most often by staphylococci; hence, special emphasis is given to staphylococcal mastitis, also given that most relevant studies refer to vaccinations against that infection. Studies regarding various vaccines have been performed; most studies refer to vaccination by using a vaccine making use of cell-free surface polysaccharides in various vehicles, bacterial unbound cells or bacterial cells embedded in their biofilm matrix. Vaccination against mastitis should be better performed during the final stage of pregnancy to allow protection of ewes from lambing and should be considered as one of many control measures for the prevention of the disease. The expected benefits of mastitis vaccination in sheep flocks include the following: (a) reduced incidence risk of clinical and subclinical mastitis, (b) reduced somatic cell counts, optimum chemical composition, absence of staphylococci in milk, (c) increased milk production, (d) reduced dissemination of mastitis-causing pathogens and (e) reduction of antibiotic use in flocks.

Comparison of the Efficacy of Intramammary or Injectable Antibiotic Administration against Staphylococcal Mastitis in Ewes

The objectives of the work were (a) to compare the efficacy of two routes for antibiotic administration in the treatment of mastitis in ewes and (b) to assess the potential importance of the timing of the initiation of the therapeutic regime on the outcome of the treatment. The ewes were allocated at random into three equal groups; intramammary inoculation with a Staphylococcus simulans isolate was performed, and clinical mastitis developed. The ewes in groups T1 (n = 6) and T2 (n = 6) were treated by the intramammary administration of ampicillin and dicloxacillin (two administrations with a 12-h interval). The ewes in group T3 (n = 6) were treated by the intramuscular injection of ampicillin and dicloxacillin (0.75 mL per 10 kg bodyweight, three injections with a 24-h interval). In the ewes in groups T1 and T3, treatment started immediately when the clinical signs of mastitis were first detected during the periodic examination of the ewes; in the ewes in group T2, treatment started 24 h after the clinical signs of mastitis were first detected. The animals were monitored clinically; mammary secretion samples were collected for bacteriological and cytological examinations. The median duration of the clinical signs was 4.75, 7.13, and 4.75 d for T1, T2, and T3; significant differences in clinical severity between the groups were seen until the 7th day post-treatment. The median duration of bacterial recovery was 3.25, 8.00, and 8.00 d for T1, T2, and T3; significant differences in the frequency of bacterial recovery between the groups were seen until (64.1%, 94.9%, and 96.2% of the samples) and after (2.9%, 16.7%, and 11.8%) the 7th day post-treatment. The median period required for the complete cure (clinical, bacteriological, and cytological) was shorter in the T1 than in the T2 and T3 ewe groups: 20.0, 32.0, and 24.5 d, respectively. The findings cover a gap in the available literature regarding the treatment of clinical mastitis in ewes. Early treatment resulted in the improved cure of the infection. The comparison of the intramammary and injectable routes for antibiotic administration indicated some benefit for the former, primarily in the post-treatment somatic cell counts.

Redox Status of Pregnant Ewes after Vaccination against Clostridial Diseases

The redox status shortly after the vaccination of pregnant ewes is rather unexploited. Thus, the present study was designed to evaluate the fluctuation of redox status after the administration of the annual booster dose of a polyvalent clostridial vaccine in pregnant ewes, 3 to 4 weeks before lambing, with or without a simultaneous injection of Vit E/Se. In total, 24 pregnant Lacaune ewes 3–4 weeks before lambing were randomly allocated into four equal groups: the V (vaccinated with a polyvalent clostridial vaccine), VE (vaccinated and injected IM with Vit E/Se), E (injected IM with Vit E and Se), and C (neither vaccinated nor injected with Vit E/Se). The study period lasted for 21 days, starting on the day of administration. Four redox biomarkers, the antioxidant capacity (TAC), the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), the reduced glutathione (GSH), and the catalase (CAT) were evaluated in blood samples collected from all ewes before the injections (0 h) and then at 12 (12 h), 24 (D1), and 48 h (D2), and thereafter on days 4 (D4), 6 (D6), 10 (D10), 14 (D14), and 21 (D21). The results reveal that the TAC was the only biomarker evaluated that was significantly affected by group and significantly lower in vaccinated animals (V and VE groups) compared to non-vaccinated (E and C groups). The absence of an increase in the TBARS values after vaccination in groups V and VE indicates the absence of significant oxidative stress. Overall, it can be assumed that annual booster immunizations against clostridial diseases do not impose acute oxidative stress on pregnant ewes in the last month of pregnancy.

Long-Term Climatic Changes in Small Ruminant Farms in Greece and Potential Associations with Animal Health

The objectives of this work were (a) to present the changes in climatic parameters from 1989 to 2019, in 444 locations throughout Greece, where small ruminant farms have been based and (b) to present associations of the changes in the climatic parameters with clinical data related to small ruminant health. Climatic variables (1989–2019) were obtained for 444 locations with small ruminant farms throughout Greece. During this period, significant increases were noted in temperature-related parameters (annually 0.05 °C for average temperature and 0.14 °C for temperature range) and precipitation (annually 0.03 mm). There were significant differences in climatic conditions between locations of farms in accord with the management system applied therein, as well as in accord with the breed of animals on the farms (e.g., higher average temperature in locations with Greek breeds, higher temperature range in locations with imported breeds). There were significant associations of temperature-related parameters with the annual frequency of cases of neonatal hypothermia seen at a veterinary teaching hospital, as well as with the average proportion of Haemonchus contortus larvae in faecal samples and the frequency of cases of H. contortus resistance reported by a veterinary parasitology laboratory.

Dairy Sheep and Goat Farmers: Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Their Associations with Health Management and Performance on Farms

The objectives were to determine the socio-demographic profiles of small ruminant dairy farmers and to study associations with management practices, production outcomes and health parameters on their farms. In total, 325 sheep flocks and 119 goat herds across Greece were included in the study and visited for collection of information. Socio-demographic characteristics of the dairy farmers and details of management practices, production outcomes and health parameters on their farms were recorded. For the analysis of results, multivariable models were created using mixed-effects logistic regression, with farms as the random effect. Most dairy farmers were male (93.2%), most were full-time professionals in farming (89.4%) and most had a farming family tradition (86.9%). The mean age was 47.0 years and the mean farming experience was 24.3 years. For 17.3% of the farmers, the highest level of education received was primary education, for 54.3% it was secondary education, for 16.4% it was post-secondary vocational training and for 12.0% it was tertiary education. In 35.4% of dairy farms, external farm workers were employed. Of the socio-demographic characteristics, farming experience was associated with geographical location of farms, management system, breed of animals, application of quarantine measures, laboratory evaluation of feedstuffs, ultrasonographic examination for pregnancy diagnosis, application of vaccination against clostridial infections, means of calculation of bodyweight for drug administration to animals, maintenance of colostrum bank, number of annual veterinary visits, annual milk production per animal, number of newborns and somatic cell counts and total bacterial counts in milk. Further, the employment of external farm workers on the farm was associated with management system, machine-milking, number and breed of animals, application of quarantine measures, laboratory evaluation of feedstuffs, ultrasonographic examination for pregnancy diagnosis, number of annual veterinary visits, annual milk production per animal, protein content in milk and number of newborns. The findings indicate that dairy sheep/goat farming is still a family-driven business, but, nevertheless, there are now younger people among these farmers, many of them with post-secondary education. Socio-demographic characteristics may influence the management practices applied, which in turn can have consequences for production and health results of the farms.

Dynamics of Neospora caninum-Associated Abortions in a Dairy Sheep Flock and Results of a Test-and-Cull Control Programme

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan parasite that can cause abortions and perinatal mortality in sheep. Although ovine neosporosis has been described worldwide, there is a lack of information about the relationship between N. caninum serostatus and the reproductive performance. In this study, we described the infection dynamics in a dairy sheep flock with an abortion rate up to 25% and a N. caninum seroprevalence of 32%. Abortions were recorded in 36% and 9% of seropositive and seronegative sheep, respectively. Seropositive sheep were more likely to abort twice (OR = 4.44) or three or more times (OR = 10.13) than seronegative sheep. Endogenous transplacental transmission was the main route of transmission since 86% of seropositive sheep had seropositive offspring. Within dams that had any abortion, seropositive sheep were more likely than seronegative ones to have female descendants that aborted (OR = 8.12). The slight increase in seropositivity with the age, the low percentage of animals with postnatal seroconversion or with low avidity antibodies, and the seropositivity of one flock dog, indicated that horizontal transmission might have some relevance in this flock. A control programme based on selective culling of seropositive sheep and replacement with seronegative animals was effective in reducing the abortion rate to 7.2%.

B-mode ultrasound and ecobiometric parameters to assess embryonic and fetal development and estimate gestational age in goats

The aim of this study was to monitor maternal-fetal ecobiometric parameters during physiological pregnancy in goats using ultrasound to predict gestational age by establishing mathematical equations. Twenty-five Saanen goats were included in the study. Assessments were performed weekly from the 21^st day of pregnancy until parturition. The abdominal, thoracic, biparietal, and eye socket diameters; distance from the neck to snout; crown-rump, humerus, radius-ulna, metacarpal, femur, tibia, metatarsal, and placentome lengths; kidney height and length; and heart area were measured. Heart rate was obtained using the pulsed Doppler mode. The variables were correlated with gestational age using Spearman's test, and the adjustment of these variables to simple and multiple regression models was done to determine the mathematical formulas for calculating the gestational age. The highest obtained coefficients of determination (R²) were for humerus length (96.2), heart area (95.6), and distance from the neck to the snout (95.3). Only the placentome length and fetal heart rate presented low determination coefficients (R² = 54.3, R² = 45.0). The results indicated significant correlations between measures of maternal-fetal structures and gestational age, and can be used as reference values for detection of abnormalities during fetal development.

Mortality of Dairy Sheep during the Peri-Parturient Period: Results of a Field Investigation in Greece

Simple Summary

The paper presents a field investigation into the death of ewes around the peri-parturient (lambing) period. The problem is financially important because, in such cases, the capital (i.e., the ewes) is lost along with the increased expenses incurred by farmers during gestation. The problem was found to occur sporadically. Most cases of death occurred before lambing. Pregnancy toxaemia, an important metabolic disease, was the clinical problem most often associated with peri-parturient death. Factors found to be significantly associated with occurrence of the problem included the average lambing rate, the season of the year during which the lambing period took place, and the number of animals in the flock.

Abstract

Objectives of the study were (a) to investigate the incidence risk of peri-parturient mortality in dairy flocks in Greece, (b) to study when such mortality occurs in relation to lambing, (c) to identify clinical problems associated with the deaths, and (d) to evaluate potentially associated factors. The deaths of ewes during the peri-parturient period (10 days before to 7 days after lambing) were monitored in 60 flocks over two years. In the ewes that died, detailed post-mortems were performed. The incidence risk of peri-parturient deaths was 0.7%. The daily incidence rate of deaths before, at, and after lambing was 0.05, 0.04, and 0.03%, respectively. Clinical problems most frequently associated with peri-parturient deaths were pregnancy toxaemia, ruminal acidosis and post-partum genital problems. For the occurrence of peri-parturient deaths in flocks, the average lambing rate in the flocks was the only significant factor. Regarding deaths before or after lambing, the season during which lambing took place and the number of animals in the flock, respectively, were found to be significant. Most ewes (54.5%) that died at lambing (dystocia) were primigravidae.

Associations between minerals and metabolic indicators in maternal blood pre- and postpartum with ewe body condition, methane emissions, and lamb body weight development

In sheep production, economic efficiency strongly depends on the maternal health and feed efficiency status and on weaning performances of their offspring. Accordingly, an optimal level for the supply with macro- and microelements and the ewe energy status has impact on the fetal development during gestation and on maternal milk production during lactation. Furthermore, this study addressed intergenerational aspects, i.e., on associations between maternal energy metabolism profiles considering the macro- and microelement status, metabolic indicators (e.g. β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)), body condition and methane (CH4) emissions with lamb BW (LBW) in two sheep breeds. Traits were recorded at the beginning of gestation (ewe traits), at lambing, three weeks postpartum, and at weaning (ewe and lamb traits). Trait recording included CH4 emissions (recorded via laser methane detector (LMD)), ewe BW (EBW), backfat thickness (BFT), and body condition score (BCS) from 46 ewes (24 Merinoland- (ML), 22 Rhönsheep (RH)), and LBW of their 87 (35 ML, 52 RH) purebred lambs. Serum levels of the following ewe blood parameters were determined: calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphate (P), nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), BHB, glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and magnesium (Mg). Mixed models were applied to infer associations between ewe blood parameters with EBW, BFT, BCS, and CH4 and with LBW recorded in offspring. At weaning, a maternal serum Mg level > 1.0 mmol/L was significantly associated with an increase of 13% in LBW in ML, compared to offspring from ML ewes with a serum Mg concentration within the lower reference range (0.8 mmol/L). Furthermore, higher Cu levels were favorably associated with ewe BCS and BFT at weaning in both breeds. In RH ewes, a Se level > 2.4 μmol/l was significantly associated with increased BCS. In the ML breed, high Zn levels during lactation were associated with reduced CH4 emissions. Ewe EBW was significantly larger for ML ewes representing low Ca levels. A low BHB level was associated with decreasing CH4 emissions in RH and ML. Serum levels for Na, K, P, GLDH, and Fe did not significantly affect the traits of interest. Trait associations from the present study indicate the importance of the mineral supply and metabolic status of the ewe with regard to body condition, CH4 emissions, and LBW development, but depending on the breed. Identified associations might contribute to energy efficiency in sheep production systems.

Causes and Flock Level Risk Factors of Sheep and Goat Abortion in Three Agroecology Zones in Ethiopia

A cross-sectional survey was conducted to estimate the incidence of small ruminant abortion and identify its major causes and potential risk factors in goat and sheep flocks in three agroecology and production systems of Ethiopia. Information on pregnancy outcomes and management risk factors were collected for 299 goat and 242 sheep flocks. Blood samples were collected from 133 sheep and 90 goat flocks and tested for Coxiella burnetii, Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, and Toxoplasma gondii. A causal diagram outlined relationships between potential predictor variables and abortion in the flock. The effect of management and exposure to infectious causes on the number of abortions in the flock across agroecology was tested using zero-inflated negative binomial regression. Results showed that 142 (58.68%) goats and 53 (17.73%) sheep flocks reported abortions in the 12 months before the survey. The mean annual flock abortion percentages were 16.1% (±26.23) for does and 12.6% (±23.5) for ewes. Farmers perceived infectious diseases, extreme weather conditions, feed shortage, physical traumas, and plant poisoning as the most important causes of abortion. A higher proportion of abortion was recorded during the short rainy season (March to May) and start of the short dry and cold season (June to August) in the lowland mixed crop-livestock and pastoral agroecology and production system, respectively. Overall, 65.41% sheep and 92.22% goat flocks tested positive for one or more abortion causing agents, namely, C. burnetti, C. abortus, Brucella spp., and T. gondii; mixed infection was found in 31.58% sheep and 63.33% goat flocks. Spending the night in a traditional house and providing supplementary feed for pregnant dams were important management factors which significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased the risk of abortion by 2.63 and 4.55 times, respectively. However, the presence of other livestock species and dogs in the household and exposure of the flock to Brucella spp. or anyone of the four tested infectious agents significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the risk of abortion in sheep and goat flocks. In general, abortion is a challenge for small ruminant production in the study area especially in lowland agroecology and calls for improvement in husbandry practices, health care and biosecurity practices.

Scenario of pathogenesis and socioeconomic burden of human brucellosis in Saudi Arabia

Brucellosis is considered a prevailing endemic infectious disease in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and represents a health problem with socio-economic burden. There are two main Brucella species that cause human brucellosis; Brucella abortus, and Brucella melitensis. The clinical features range from asymptomatic to the acute symptoms of fever, joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea/vomiting, anorexia and malaise in addition to the subsequent complications that might occur. The endemicity of brucellosis might be explained due to obstacles in controlling the importation of animals for slaughtering during Hajj periods and for several other predisposing factors. The distribution of the disease is all over the country and the most prevalent part is the south followed by north and then the east and central parts. However, in the complexity of brucellosis control measures, there are several activities which have been implemented to tackle the disease such as mass vaccination of animals, regulating importation of slaughter animals, and improving public awareness. This review provides a detailed description of the status of brucellosis in Saudi Arabia, which includes epidemiology, clinical characteristics, virulence and pathophysiology, and prevention of the disease.

Developing a theoretical evolutionary framework to solve the mystery of parturition initiation

Eutherian mammals have characteristic lengths of gestation that are key for reproductive success, but relatively little is known about the processes that determine the timing of parturition, the process of birth, and how they are coordinated with fetal developmental programs. This issue remains one of biology's great unsolved mysteries and has significant clinical relevance because preterm birth is the leading cause of infant and under 5 year old child mortality worldwide. Here, we consider the evolutionary influences and potential signaling mechanisms that maintain or end pregnancy in eutherian mammals and use this knowledge to formulate general theoretical evolutionary models. These models can be tested through evolutionary species comparisons, studies of experimental manipulation of gestation period and birth timing, and human clinical studies. Understanding how gestation time and parturition are determined will shed light on this fundamental biological process and improve human health through the development of therapies to prevent preterm birth.

Traditional Diagnosis of Eimeria spp. in Fallow Deer at Middle Parts of Iraq

Eimeria is an apicomplex protozoon which affects many species of birds, domestic and wild animals including deer. This is the first study in Iraq that was designed for diagnosis Eimeria spp. in deer using traditional methods. Eighty fecal samples of Fallow deer (Damadama) were collected in different provinces in the middle part of Iraq during December 2018 to the end of September 2019. Samples were examined by direct smear and flotation with Sheather's solution. The total infection rate with Eimeria spp. was 70% (56/80), in which higher infection rate was observed in female deer (78%, 39/50). The results also showed that Fawn at age<3-11 months recorded higher rate of infection (86.3%, 19/22). Eimeria infection was more prevalent in Karbala and Baghdad provinces where recorded (73.3% and 72%) respectively, sharp increase of infection recorded during March (87.5%, 7/8). In addition, four species of Eimeria (E. crandalis, E. intricate, E. parva, and E. sordida) were detected in Iraqi deer according to morphological characterization of oocysts. This study highlighted the distribution of some Eimeria species in deer and revealed the effect of some epidemiological factors on prevalence in different middle Iraq provinces.

Suppression of prolactin and reduction of milk secretion by effect of cabergoline in lactating dairy ewes

The effects of cabergoline, an ergot derivative and dopamine receptor agonist, were investigated in 30 ewes of 2 dairy breeds (Manchega; MN, n = 15; Lacaune; LC, n = 15). Ewes were in a similar late-lactation stage, but differed in milk yield according to breed (MN vs. LC, 1.02 ± 0.03 vs. 2.27 ± 0.05 kg/d). Treatments consisted of a single intramuscular injection of cabergoline at different doses per ewe. Cabergoline doses (per ewe) were: low (0.56 mg), high (1.12 mg), and control (CON; 0 mg; 1 mL of saline). Milk yield was recorded daily (d -14 to 25), milk and blood were sampled, and udder traits were measured from d -2 to 14 after injection. No local reaction at the injection site, nor behavior and metabolic indicators of the ewes were detected after the cabergoline injection, but milk yield fell rapidly in both breeds (MN vs. LC, -54% vs. -27%) when compared with CON ewes. Cabergoline effects progressively disappeared after d 5, and no milk yield differences between treatments were detected from d 8 to 25 after injection. Milk fat and protein contents increased similarly (22% and 23%; respectively) in both breeds and at both cabergoline doses until d 5, and the effects disappeared thereafter. Plasma prolactin (PRL) decreased dramatically in the low- and high-treated ewes the day after injection when compared with the CON ewes, and reached values below the detection limit of the assay between d 1 and 5, increasing similarly thereafter. On d 14, PRL values were 58% greater in the low- and high-treated than in the CON ewes, showing that PRL concentrations rebounded when the cabergoline effects ceased. Total udder volume correlated with milk accumulated in the udder (r = 0.77) of all groups of ewes throughout the experiment, suggesting its use as a noninvasive method for the estimation of milk stored in the udder. Udder volume was similar for the low and high ewes, but both values were lower than those of the CON ewes from d 1 to 14 after injection. No other effects on udder size were detected. Cabergoline dramatically inhibited PRL secretion and decreased milk yield and udder volume of lactating dairy ewes. The low dose of cabergoline was as effective as the high dose in the 2 breeds of dairy ewes. These results suggest the use of cabergoline to facilitate the decrease of milk production in dairy ewes (e.g., dry-off, illness care), although further research in pregnant dairy ewes and during the following lactation is still needed.

Evaluation of Barbervax® vaccination for lambing Merino ewes

The Barbervax® vaccine, directed against Haemonchus contortus, has been commercially available in Australia since 2014. However, to date the optimal timing for booster vaccination of lambing ewes has not been identified. Therefore the aim of this experiment was to compare the efficacy of Barbervax® when administered to ewes one week prior to the commencement of lambing versus at lamb marking 7 weeks later. A total of 400 single bearing Merino ewes, run on a commercial sheep property in the New England region of New South Wales, previously primed with Barbervax® were enrolled in the project. The experiment incorporated a cross-over design with two treatments imposed pre-lambing; Barbervax® booster vaccination with anthelmintic (n = 200) or anthelmintic alone (n = 200). At lamb marking, there were four treatment groups (n = 100) and anthelmintic was administered to all treatment groups. The four treatment combinations were Barbervax® booster vaccination at pre-lambing and lamb marking (V-V), booster vaccination only at pre-lambing (V-A), booster vaccination only at lamb marking (A-V) or anthelmintic only at both at pre-lambing and lamb marking (A-A). Pre-lambing Barbervax® booster vaccination of ewes induced an antibody response and, when used in conjunction with anthelmintic, significantly reduced worm egg counts (WEC) assessed at 7 weeks (lamb marking) and 13 weeks later, relative to treatment with anthelmintic alone. Booster vaccination plus anthelmintic treatment at lamb marking was not effective at reducing WEC compared to anthelmintic treatment alone. Body weight and packed cell volume did not differ between the treatment groups throughout the trial. In conclusion Barbervax® booster vaccination at pre-lambing provides additional protection for reproducing ewes given an effective short acting anthelmintic at this time.

Detection of twin pregnancies in ewes by pregnancy-associated glycoprotein assay and transabdominal ultrasonography

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate and compare the accuracy of transabdominal ultrasonography and pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) assay in the diagnosis of twin pregnancies in ewes and to evaluate the utility of the PAG assay for predicting fetal gender in singleton pregnancies. The animals in the study consisted of 179 pregnant ewes. The number of fetuses in the ewe was determined using transabdominal ultrasonography between days 40 and 60 (on days 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60). Blood samples were collected from all the ewes on the same day to determine the PAG concentrations. The results found were highly sensitive for the detection of twin pregnancies by transabdominal ultrasonography. The accuracy of transabdominal ultrasonography in detecting twin pregnancies was found to be higher on day 60 than on other days (P < 0.05). The sensitivities of PAG assay in detecting twin pregnancies on days 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60 were 91.67%, 66.67%, 81.82%, 88.89%, and 33.33%, respectively. The accuracies of the PAG assay in detecting twin pregnancies on days 40, 45, and 50 were found to be statistically significant higher than other days (P < 0.05). The PAG assay had low sensitivity and specificity for predicting fetal gender. It was concluded that twin pregnancies in ewes can be diagnosed with high accuracy using transabdominal ultrasonography on day 60 of pregnancy and as well as using the PAG assay during the early days of pregnancy (on days 40, 45, and 50). The PAG assay is not useful for predicting fetal gender.

Clinical, ultrasonographic, bacteriological, cytological and histological findings during uterine involution in ewes with pregnancy toxaemia and subsequent reproductive efficiency

Objectives were to evaluate characteristics of uterine involution in ewes with pregnancy toxaemia during gestation and to study effects on subsequent reproductive performance. Pregnancy toxaemia was induced in ewes (A) by feeding an energy-deficient diet as confirmed by detecting β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in blood indicative of this disorder. There was also a control group (C). Animals were evaluated until the 60th day post-partum using clinical and ultrasonographic examinations. Vaginal swab samples and uterine biopsy tissue samples were collected for bacteriological and cytological examination; biopsy samples were prepared for histological examination. Ewes were subsequently placed with rams and reproductive performance was ascertained. Post-partum, during the ultrasonographic examination of the uterus, ewes of Group A had caruncle and uterine lumen diameters, as well as a uterine thickness greater than ewes of Group C. Post-partum uterine blood flow volume was greater in ewes of the A than C group. Neutrophils predominated in vaginal samples, with the neutrophil proportion being less in ewes of Group A than C. There were no differences in the uterine involution process between groups. During the subsequent reproductive season, all the ewes of Group A lambed normally and produced viable lambs. It is concluded that there were no adverse effects on subsequent reproductive performance of ewes previously affected with pregnancy toxaemia, when appropriate health management was performed.

Clinical, Ultrasonographic, Bacteriological, Cytological and Histopathological Findings of Uterine Involution in Ewes with Uterine Infection

The objectives of the study were (a) to study the characteristics of uterine involution in ewes that had developed subclinical uterine infection in the immediately post-partum period and (b) to evaluate effects of the infection in the subsequent reproductive performance of ewes. Uterine infection was induced in ewes (I, n = 10) by intrauterine inoculation of Escherichia coli; uninoculated controls were included (C, n = 12). Animals were examined at regular intervals before and post-inoculation. Clinical and ultrasonographic examinations were performed. Vaginal swab samples and biopsy uterine tissue samples were collected for bacteriological, cytological and histological examination. Finally, ewes were put to rams and reproductive performance was monitored. After challenge, it was ultrasonographically found that caruncular dimensions, myometrial thickness and diameter of uterine lumen were greater in I ewes. In these ewes, particular reduction of dimensions occurred during the second week post-partum, whilst in C ewes during the first week. The uterine artery diameter and the blood flow into the uterus were also greater in I than in C ewes. E. coli infection was more frequent and of longer duration in I than in C ewes: in 68.1% and 50.0% of ewes and 19.5 and 14 days, respectively. There was lower proportion of neutrophils and higher of lymphocytes in group I than in C. In inoculated ewes, there was histological evidence of uterine epithelial destruction, increased cellular infiltration, hyperaemia and extracasation, which persisted up to 42 days post-partum. During the subsequent reproductive season, all ewes in group I lambed normally and produced healthy and viable lambs. No significant difference in reproductive performance parameters were seen in I comparison to C ewes. It is concluded that the innate immunity of the uterus sufficed to counteract the bacterial infection, although the process of involution took longer than in healthy animals; moreover, the ultrasonographic examination is a useful means for assessment of the genital tract of ewes post-partum; finally, no adverse effects were noted in the subsequent reproductive performance of ewes.

Assessment of targeted selective treatment criteria to control subclinical gastrointestinal nematode infections on sheep farms

Control of sheep gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections mostly relies on the use of anthelmintics. Refugia-based control strategies as targeted selective treatments (TST) can delay anthelmintic resistance development, but the optimal decision criteria for selecting individuals to be treated in subclinical infection scenarios remain unclear. The present study aimed to evaluate the suitability of body condition score (BCS) and faecal egg counts (FEC) as treatment indicators and to determine their optimized threshold values for treatment in TST by determining the relationships of BCS, FEC and anthelmintic treatment with several productive parameters in pre-mating and pre-partum periods at an individual level. Deworming in pre-mating period increased BCS gain, but its magnitude was directly associated with strongyle FEC before treatment. Deworming also increased fertility in ewes with BCS < 2.75 and the proportion of lambing ewes that got pregnant during the first ovulation cycle. Nevertheless, treatment did not yield productive benefits in ewes with higher BCS values. On the other hand, deworming in the pre-partum lowered lamb peri-partum mortality and increased lamb weight at birth and the growth of lambs during lactation, especially in lambs born from ewes with strongyle FEC > 400 epg before treatment. These results showed that FEC and especially BCS can be potential decision criteria for the implementation of TST in these types of scenarios. The TST scheme derived from the present results on the control of GIN infections should include anthelmintic treatment of ewes with BCS lower than ≈ 3 approximately five weeks before mating and lambing. In the pre-lambing period, treatment may be unnecessary if flock mean strongyle FEC is lower than ≈ 200 epg, as the proportion of ewes with individual FEC > 400 epg would be very low. The results suggest that implementation of this TST scheme would provide benefits, such as the improvement of productivity, a rational management of parasites in refugia, and preservation of future efficacy of anthelmintics, in comparison to traditional deworming schemes.

Relationship between fetal biometric assessment by ultrasonography and neonatal lamb vitality, birth weight and growth

Ultrasonographic examination of pregnant ewes can enable the identification of perinatal abnormalities and establish prenatal assistance responsible for minimizing morbidity and perinatal mortality. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the feasibility of a fetal biometric analysis by ultrasonography to predict neonatal vitality and lamb growth during the first month of life. A longitudinal study was conducted with 13 healthy ewes, subjected to ultrasonographic examination every 15 days from 60^th day of pregnancy until lambing, evaluating thoracic diameter, abdominal diameter, biparietal diameter, humerus, femur and placentome length. At birth, 22 lambs were assessed through Apgar score at 5 minutes and after 1 hour. Measurement of body weight was also carried out immediately at birth and weekly during 30 days after birth. Thoracic diameter showed a significant increase between 91-105 days and 121-135 days. Conversely, abdominal diameter had a progressive growth until 106-120 days, and then, a steady development was observed. Biparietal diameter showed progressive growth only towards days 91 and 105. For the humerus length, we verified a significant increase between 106-120 days and 121-135 days, remaining unaltered onwards; while femur length continued to grow until lambing. The linear regression analysis between birth weight and biparietal diameter at 60-75 days was high (R²=0.96; P<0.0001; coefficient of variability of 3.3%). In conclusion, ultrasonographic analysis of fetal biparietal diameter at mid-pregnancy can be used as a predictor of lamb weight at birth. Moreover, assessment of femur length at final pregnancy can be employed for fetal and neonatal development estimation.

Experimental study for evaluation of the efficacy of a biofilm-embedded bacteria-based vaccine against Staphylococcus chromogenes-associated mastitis in sheep

Although coagulase-negative staphylococci are the primary aetiological agents of subclinical mastitis in ewes, there is little information regarding vaccination against that infection. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a vaccine against staphylococcal mastitis in ewes under experimental conditions. The antigen in the vaccine is based on a bacterin of Staphylococcus aureus strain, expressing the exopolysaccharide poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG), which is involved in biofilm formation by these bacteria. Ewes in groups A (n = 17) or B (n = 6) were given an initial vaccination 5 weeks before expected lambing, followed by a repeat administration 21 days later. Ewes in groups C (n = 8) or D (n = 6) were unvaccinated controls. Ewes in group A (n = 17) or C (n = 8) were challenged with a biofilm-forming S. chromogenes; animals in subgroups A1 or C1 were challenged on the 10th and those in A2 or C2 on the 50th day after lambing. Ewes in groups B or D were uninoculated controls. Clinical examinations of ewes, ultrasonographic examinations of udder, milk yield measurements, blood sampling for detection of anti-PNAG specific antibodies and milk sample collection for bacteriological and cytological examinations were performed up to 52nd day post-challenge. Finally, biopsies were performed for mammary tissue collection for histopathological examination. Among group A ewes, 29% developed systemic signs and 59% signs in the inoculated gland; the respective figures for group C were 50% and 100% (P =  0.040 for mammary signs). The median total clinical score was 2.0 for A and 5.5 for C ewes (P =  0.025). For A, but not for C, clinical scores decreased progressively during the study (P =  0.018 and P =  0.47, respectively). The duration of mastitis was shorter in A (4 days) than in C (17.5 days) ewes (P =  0.022). Bacterial counts were lower in milk samples from A than from C ewes, for samples collected from the inoculated and the uninoculated (P <  0.01) mammary glands of these ewes. Somatic cell counts in samples from inoculated and uninoculated mammary glands of A ewes were higher than in samples of C ewes (P <  0.02). There were differences for gray-scale evaluations during ultrasonographic examination and for milk yield measurements between groups (P <  0.01). Median bacterial counts in tissue samples from A ewes (0 cfu g^-1) were lower than in ones from C (6.5 cfu g^-1) ewes (P =  0.041). The median score for histopathological findings in tissue samples from inoculated glands of A was lower than that for C ewes: 1 versus 2 (P =  0.014). It is concluded that mastitis was less severe in vaccinated animals, as indicated by a wide array of measures.

Investigation of Toxoplasma gondii and association with early pregnancy and abortion rates in New Zealand farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus)

This study tested for association between Toxoplasma gondii and pregnancy and abortion to investigate sub-optimal reproduction in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus). Sera from a sub-sample (n = 2304) of pregnant and non-pregnant hinds in early gestation at first pregnancy scan (scan 1) and approximately at the end of second trimester at second pregnancy scan (scan 2) were tested for T. gondii antibodies using a validated ELISA. Foetuses and/or uteri from pregnant, non-pregnant, and aborting hinds at scan 1, scan 2, or weaning were tested for T. gondii DNA by nested PCR. At scan 1, 31.1% of 861 rising two-year-old (R2) and 28.3% of 357 mixed-aged (MA, ≥ 2 years) hinds were sero-positive. There was no association between scan 1 serology and non-pregnancy at animal (R2, p = 0.05 and MA, p = 0.43) or herd level (R2, p = 0.37). Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in 3/18 placenta and 4/18 foetal brains from aborting R2 hinds and 15/157 R2 and 3/21 MA uteri from non-pregnant hinds at scan 1. At scan 2, sero-prevalence was higher (odds ratio = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.04-2.48) in aborted (34.3% of 268) than in non-aborted (23.5% of 446) R2 hinds (p = 0.03) and 7.9% of abortions between scans were attributable to T. gondii exposure. Within-herd sero-prevalence at scan 2 was positively associated with daily abortion rate in R2 herds with aborted hinds (p < 0.001) but not in MA herds (p = 0.07). Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in 27/169 uteri, 2/20 cotyledons, and 1/5 foetal brains from aborted hinds at scan 2 and in uteri from 5/33 hinds not rearing a calf to weaning. Toxoplasma gondii RFLP genotyping of five loci revealed a unique type I/III genotype pattern, TgRDNZ1, in a foetal brain sample, not been previously reported in deer. These findings provide serological and molecular evidence that T. gondii infection is associated with abortion in red deer, possibly in all three trimesters.

Antimicrobial Agent Susceptibility and Typing of Staphylococcal Isolates from Subclinical Mastitis in Ewes

Objective was to study susceptibility to antimicrobial agents of 142 staphylococcal isolates from subclinical mastitis in ewes. In total, 41.5% of these were resistant and 5.6% multidrug resistant. More coagulase-negative staphylococci (47.0%) were resistant than Staphylococcus aureus (18.5%) isolates. Resistance was greater to penicillin (22.5%), tetracycline, or ampicillin (18.3%). More biofilm-forming (20.6%) isolates were resistant to tetracycline than nonbiofilm-forming (0.0%) ones. Presence of tetK was associated with presence of icaA in the same strains. Further, 76.6% of resistant isolates versus 57.7% of susceptible ones were recovered immediately postpartum and 23.4% of resistant isolates versus 9.9% of susceptible ones were recovered in farms that practiced routine administration of antimicrobial agents at the end of a lactation period. Most S. aureus (59.3%) were classified in ST133 and most Staphylococcus epidermidis were classified in ST100, ST142, or ST152 (19.0% each). There was no association of sequence types with resistance. Whole genome sequencing showed that, in a Staphylococcus lentus strain, the ermB gene was part of transposon Tn917 integrated into the chromosome; also, a small plasmid was observed in an ermC-carrying Staphylococcus hominis strain and, finally, in an S. aureus and an S. epidermidis strains, small tetK-carrying plasmids (pSau-2716Lar, pSau-3893Lar) of 4.439 kb were found.

Evaluation of the Precision Xtra meter for monitoring blood β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in late-gestation ewes

Blood samples were collected from late-gestation ewes to determine the agreement of a point-of-care (POC) Precision Xtra meter and a standard laboratory test for β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA). Fresh whole blood samples were immediately tested with the POC instrument, and serum samples were analyzed with a standard commercial biochemical analyzer. Ewes were classified as having ketonemia if their BHBA concentrations were ≥800 µmol/L. Scatter plots, paired t-tests, Bland-Altman limits of agreement, and Gwet AC1 tests were used to compare results. The 2 tests had very good agreement. The values between instruments were not statistically different based on paired t-tests ( p = 0.312). The intercept and slope of a linear mixed model, containing the standard test results as an outcome and the POC meter results as a predictor, were 0.02 (95% CI: 0.00, 0.04) and 0.98 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.01), respectively. When the samples were classified into ketonemic classes (non-ketonemic and ketonemic) based on BHBA concentrations obtained from each test, the Gwet AC1 statistic was 0.94 (95% CI: 0.91, 0.97; p < 0.001). The ketosis classification agreed in 95% of samples. Based on the Bland-Altman plot and limits of agreement, the optimal cutoff to diagnose ketonemia with the POC meter was 1,000 µmol/L, which is 200 µmol/L higher than the laboratory BHBA medical decision limit. The Precision Xtra meter provided excellent correlation and substantial agreement with the standard laboratory technique for measuring blood BHBA in late-gestation ewes.

Qualitative and quantitative ultrasound attributes of maternal-foetal structures in pregnant ewes

The aim of this study was to examine foetal organs and placental tissue to establish a correlation between the changes in the composition of these structures associated with their maturation and the ultrasonographic characteristics of the images. Twenty-four pregnant ewes were included in the study. Ultrasonography assessments were performed in B-mode, from the ninth gestational week until parturition. The lungs, liver and kidneys of foetuses and placentomes were located in transverse and longitudinal sections to evaluate the echogenicity (hypoechoic, isoechoic, hyperechoic or mixed) and echotexture (homogeneous and heterogeneous) of the tissues of interest. For quantitative evaluation of the ultrasonographic characteristics, it was performed a computerized image analysis using a commercial software (Image ProPlus^® ). Mean numerical pixel values (NPVs), pixel heterogeneity (standard deviation of NPVs) and minimum and maximum pixel values were measured by selecting five circular regions of interest in each assessed tissue. All evaluated tissues presented significant variations in the NPVs, except for the liver. Pulmonary NPVmean, NPVmin and NPVmax decreased gradually through gestational weeks. The renal parameters gradually decreased with the advancement of the gestational weeks until the 17th week and later stabilized. The placentome NPVmean, NPVmin and NPVmax decreased gradually over the course of weeks. The hepatic tissue did not show echogenicity and echotexture variations and presented medium echogenicity and homogeneous echotexture throughout the experimental period. It was concluded that pixels numerical evaluation of maternal-foetal tissues was applicable and allowed the identification of quantitative ultrasonographic characteristics showing changes in echogenicity related to gestational age.

The association of serum β-hydroxybutyrate concentration with fetal number and health indicators in late-gestation ewes in commercial meat flocks in Prince Edward Island

Late-gestation ewes are susceptible to ketonemia resulting from high energy requirement for fetal growth during the last few weeks of pregnancy. High lamb mortality is a possible consequence of effects of ketonemia on both ewes and lambs. Determining risk factors to ketonemia is a fundamental step to identify ewes at risk, in order to avoid losses caused by ketonemia. Serum β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) concentrations of 384 late-gestation ewe samples were determined. Physical examinations, including body condition, FAMACHA^© and hygiene scoring, were performed. Udders and teeth were also examined. Fecal floatation was performed to detect gastrointestinal helminth eggs of the ewe fecal samples. General feeding management practices and season at sampling were recorded. Litter sizes were retrieved from lambing records. Factors associated with log serum BHBA concentration were determined using a linear mixed model, with flock and lambing groups as random effects. The mean serum BHBA concentration was 545.8 (±453.3) μmol/l. Ewes with a body condition score (BCS) of 2.5-3.5 had significantly lower log BHBA concentrations than ewes with a BCS of ≤2.0, by 19.7% (p = 0.035). Ewes with a BCS of >3.5 had a trend toward higher log BHBA concentrations compared to ewes with a BCS of 2.5-3.5. Ewes with a FAMACHA^© score of 3 had significantly higher log BHBA concentrations than ewes with a FAMACHA^© score of 1 or 2, by 12.1% (p = 0.049). Ewes in which gastrointestinal helminth eggs were detected had significantly higher log BHBA concentrations than ewes in which helminth eggs were not detected, by 12.3% (p = 0.040). An increased litter size was associated with higher log BHBA concentration (p ≤ 0.003), with the log BHBA concentrations of ewes having twins, triplets, and quadruplets or quintuplets were higher than those of ewes having singleton by 19.2%, 30.4%, and 85.2%, respectively. Season at sampling confounded the association between log BHBA concentration and FAMACHA^© score, and therefore was retained in the final model even though it was not statistically significant. Intra-class correlation coefficients at the flock and lambing group levels were 0.14 and 0.32, respectively.

The ovulation rate, plasma progesterone and estradiol concentration, and litter size of a local ewe breed kept in a barn vs. those kept under an overhead shelter

Abstract. A herd of sheep (40 heads) was divided into two equal groups: group 1 was kept under an overhead shelter and group 2 in a warm barn. The effect of maintenance on ewe's reproductive performance, corpora lutea and corpora lutea of pregnancy rate, as well as the concentration of plasma progesterone and estradiol in peripheral blood was investigated. At the first laparoscopy fewer corpora lutea than during the following one were observed (P ≤ 0.01). In sheep kept under the overhead shelter, a greater number of corpora lutea were noted. More corpora lutea of pregnancy were observed in group 1 than in the group from the barn. On the first day after mating the average level of progesterone was 190 pg mL−1, and after 2 weeks it increased to more than 300 pg mL−1 (P ≤ 0.01). The positive correlation between the number of corpora lutea of pregnancy and progesterone concentration (P ≤ 0.01) and the negative correlation (P ≤ 0.01) with number of corpora lutea of pregnancy, as well as between the litter size and estradiol concentration, were observed. Harsh environmental conditions did not cause a significant decrease of the reproduction performance of ewes kept under the overhead shed.

A longitudinal study of factors associated with acute and chronic mastitis and their impact on lamb growth rate in 10 suckler sheep flocks in Great Britain

A 2-year prospective, longitudinal study of 10 suckler sheep flocks in Great Britain was run to identify factors associated with acute mastitis (AM) and chronic mastitis, and their impact on lamb growth rate. Data were collected on AM, intramammary masses (IMM; a marker for chronic mastitis), udder and teat conformation, teat lesions, body condition, ewe nutrition, litter size, lamb weight and general flock management. Each flock was visited twice each year, approximately 4 weeks before lambing and 9 weeks into lactation, for two years and all ewes present at a visit were examined. There were 7021 examinations in total. AM was reported in 2.1-3.0% of ewes/year; this ranged from 0.0% to 37.1% by flock. IMM were detected in 4.7% of ewes in pregnancy and 10.9% of ewes in lactation. Once an IMM had been detected there was an increased risk of future IMM although IMM were not consistently present. The majority of ewes had good udder conformation to suckle lambs. Factors associated with AM, IMM in pregnant and lactating ewes, udder conformation and lamb daily live weight gain were explored using mixed effect multivariable models. An increased risk of AM was associated with underfeeding protein in pregnancy (OR 4.05), forward pointing teats (OR 2.54), downward pointing teats (OR 4.68), rearing≥2 lambs (OR 2.65), non-traumatic teat lesions (OR 2.09); and marginally associated with the presence of IMM. An increased risk of IMM in lactation was associated with AM during lactation (OR 12.39), IMM in pregnancy (OR 4.79), IMM in the previous lactation (OR 4.77), underfeeding energy in pregnancy (OR 6.66) and traumatic teat lesions (OR 2.48). An increased risk of IMM in pregnancy was associated with IMM in the previous pregnancy, IMM in the previous lactation and underfeeding energy in the previous lactation (OR 2.95). Lower lamb daily live weight gain was associated with traumatic teat lesions, IMM in lactation (-0.01kg/day) and AM (-0.04kg/day). We conclude that inadequate nutrition is an important cause of mastitis in suckler ewes which farmers could address in part using current nutritional guidelines but further work is needed. The relationship between AM and IMM indicates that separating or culling ewes with IMM would help reduce AM.

Physiological changes in the peri-partum period and colostral IgG transfer in prolific D'man sheep: effects of parity and litter size

The aim of this work was to assess maternal and neonatal changes in plasma proteins, glucose and cortisol and to quantify the colostral immunoglobulin G (IgG) transfer in the peri-partum period in D'man sheep, a prolific breed, taking into account the parity of the ewe. The concentrations of proteins and glucose were high in the ewes on day 7 and at lambing before decreasing. Likewise, cortisol plasma concentration was maximal during the 6 h following lambing and dropped at 12 h. Protein and glucose concentrations were low in lambs at 1 h of birth after which they increased. By contrast, cortisol level was the highest during the first 12 h of birth and then decreased. The colostral IgG level was high at lambing and dropped by over 87 % from 1 to 48 h post-partum. In the newborn, the plasma IgG concentration was lowest at birth and increased rapidly during the first 24 h of birth. Parity influenced maternal physiology with multiparous ewes having the lowest concentrations of proteins, glucose, IgG and cortisol, but the highest colostrum IgG level. Accordingly, lambs born from primiparous ewes had lower protein, glucose and plasma IgG concentrations than lambs born from multiparous ewes. The main outcome of this study was that lambs born from primiparous ewes are characterized by the lowest physiological indices and this may influence their survival chance.