Albumin in the management of hepatic encephalopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

[Management of hepatic encephalopathy: A general review]

Hepatic encephalopathy is a severe complication with high mortality in patients with hepatopathy and/or portosystemic shunts, partly due to the presence of hyperammonemia because of defective hepatic detoxification. Diagnosis is essentially clinical, characterized by various neuropsychiatric symptoms, possibly associated with hyperammonemia. Complementary tests, such as electroencephalogram to identify metabolic encephalopathy, or specific abnormalities on cerebral magnetic resonance imagery, may also support the diagnosis. Management is essentially based on treatment of triggering factors such as ionic disorders or sepsis, and symptomatic therapy with non-absorbable disaccharides (notably lactulose) or polyethylene glycol, possibly combined with rifaximin. Progression varies according to the initial severity and management of hepatic encephalopathy, but this condition is potentially reversible with treatment.

Correlation of ammonia and blood laboratory parameters with hepatic encephalopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Emerging research suggests that hyperammonemia may enhance the probability of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), a condition associated with elevated levels of circulating ammonia in patients with cirrhosis. However, some studies indicate that blood ammonia levels may not consistently correlate with the severity of HE, highlighting the complex pathophysiology of this condition.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis through PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, and Virtual Health Library were conducted to address this complexity, analyzing and comparing published data on various laboratory parameters, including circulating ammonia, blood creatinine, albumin, sodium, and inflammation markers in cirrhotic patients, both with and without HE.

RESULTS

This comprehensive review, which included 81 studies from five reputable databases until June 2024, revealed a significant increase in circulating ammonia levels in cirrhotic patients with HE, particularly those with overt HE. Notably, significant alterations were observed in the circulating creatinine, albumin, sodium, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) in HE patients.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest an association between ammonia and HE and underscore the importance of considering other blood parameters such as creatinine, albumin, sodium, and pro-inflammatory cytokines when devising new treatment strategies for HE.

Prophylaxis of hepatic encephalopathy: current and future drug targets

Hepatic encephalopathy is described by a broad spectrum of neurological and psychiatric aberrations resulting due to advanced liver dysfunction. It is a neurological disorder due to hepatic insufficiency and/or portosystemic shunts. Its clinical presentation includes neuropsychiatric dysfunction ranging from subclinical changes to comatose state. It is a sign of poor prognosis in cirrhotics with a high 1-year mortality. Each episode of hepatic encephalopathy leads to high hospitalization rate, poor prognosis and raised burden of healthcare. Primary prophylaxis is prevention of initial occurrence and secondary prophylaxis is prevention of reappearance of hepatic encephalopathy in subjects who had prior history. Early detection and management of triggers is very important in the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy. The initial choice of treatment is still lactulose, as it is effective in minimal, overt, and recurrent hepatic encephalopathy. Rifaximin is equally effective as lactulose in managing hepatic encephalopathy and is better tolerated. Branch chain amino acids are beneficial in subjects who are protein intolerant. L-ornithine L-aspartate and probiotics are also useful in the management of hepatic encephalopathy. Rifaximin along with lactulose is effective in managing overt and recurrent hepatic encephalopathy. Large portosystemic shunts embolization and liver transplant is efficacious in certain group of patients. Nutritional therapy and fecal microbiota transplantation are newer therapies for hepatic encephalopathy but the evidences are limited, more research is required to prove their efficacy. Involvement of hospital pharmacists, telemedicine, and providing education are also beneficial in managing hepatic encephalopathy.

Albumin: a comprehensive review and practical guideline for clinical use

PURPOSE

Nowadays, it is largely accepted that albumin should not be used in hypoalbuminemia or for nutritional purpose. The most discussed indication of albumin at present is the resuscitation in shock states, especially distributive shocks such as septic shock. The main evidence-based indication is also liver disease. In this review, we provided updated evidence-based instruction for definite and potential indications of albumin administration in clinical practice, with appropriate dosing and duration.

METHODS

Data collection was carried out until November 2023 by search of electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. GRADE system has been used to determine the quality of evidence and strength of recommendations for each albumin indication.

RESULTS

A total of 165 relevant studies were included in this review. Fluid replacement in plasmapheresis and liver diseases, including hepatorenal syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and large-volume paracentesis, have a moderate to high quality of evidence and a strong recommendation for administering albumin. Moreover, albumin is used as a second-line and adjunctive to crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in hypovolemic shock, sepsis and septic shock, severe burns, toxic epidermal necrolysis, intradialytic hypotension, ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, major surgery, non-traumatic brain injury, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and severe and refractory edema with hypoalbuminemia has a low to moderate quality of evidence and weak recommendation to use. Also, in modest volume paracentesis, severe hyponatremia in cirrhosis has a low to moderate quality of evidence and a weak recommendation.

CONCLUSION

Albumin administration is most indicated in management of cirrhosis complications. Fluid resuscitation or treatment of severe and refractory edema, especially in patients with hypoalbuminemia and not responding to other treatments, is another rational use for albumin. Implementation of evidence-based guidelines in hospitals can be an effective measure to reduce inappropriate uses of albumin.

European Society of Intensive Care Medicine clinical practice guideline on fluid therapy in adult critically ill patients. Part 1: the choice of resuscitation fluids

PURPOSE

This is the first of three parts of the clinical practice guideline from the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) on resuscitation fluids in adult critically ill patients. This part addresses fluid choice and the other two will separately address fluid amount and fluid removal.

METHODS

This guideline was formulated by an international panel of clinical experts and methodologists. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology was applied to evaluate the certainty of evidence and to move from evidence to decision.

RESULTS

For volume expansion, the guideline provides conditional recommendations for using crystalloids rather than albumin in critically ill patients in general (moderate certainty of evidence), in patients with sepsis (moderate certainty of evidence), in patients with acute respiratory failure (very low certainty of evidence) and in patients in the perioperative period and patients at risk for bleeding (very low certainty of evidence). There is a conditional recommendation for using isotonic saline rather than albumin in patients with traumatic brain injury (very low certainty of evidence). There is a conditional recommendation for using albumin rather than crystalloids in patients with cirrhosis (very low certainty of evidence). The guideline provides conditional recommendations for using balanced crystalloids rather than isotonic saline in critically ill patients in general (low certainty of evidence), in patients with sepsis (low certainty of evidence) and in patients with kidney injury (very low certainty of evidence). There is a conditional recommendation for using isotonic saline rather than balanced crystalloids in patients with traumatic brain injury (very low certainty of evidence). There is a conditional recommendation for using isotonic crystalloids rather than small-volume hypertonic crystalloids in critically ill patients in general (very low certainty of evidence).

CONCLUSIONS

This guideline provides eleven recommendations to inform clinicians on resuscitation fluid choice in critically ill patients.

Evaluating Diastolic Dysfunction as an Indicator of Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy in Decompensated Chronic Liver Disease

BACKGROUND

The clinical syndrome of cirrhotic cardiomyopathy (CCM) occurs quite frequently in decompensated chronic liver disease (DCLD) patients without any prior incidence. The compromised life expectancy under such conditions was the key that prompted us to conduct this study.

PURPOSE

This study was planned to study the prevalence of diastolic dysfunction in chronic liver disease patients, to understand the diagnostic criteria of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (LVDD) in cirrhotic patients, and to evaluate its occurrence as an early indicator of CCM.

METHODS

A hospital-based, cross-sectional study was conducted on 158 patients, admitted to the Department of Medicine, Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences, Ranchi, India, who conformed to our criteria for inclusion and exclusion. The study period was for 18 months. The subjects were clinically and radiologically diagnosed with chronic liver disease. Regression analysis for variables was performed to score the effects of potential variables with outcomes for diastolic dysfunction (DD) prediction.

RESULTS

Out of 158 patients, 116 belonged to the age group of 31-60 years, pronouncing age to be a significant factor for LVDD. Fifty-three subjects had serum bilirubin levels >2mg/dL and we found serum bilirubin levels to bear a significant correlation with LVDD by exhibiting a p-value <0.0001. Both the Child-Turcotte-Pugh score class (p-value=0.0180) and QTc (p-value <0.0001) bear significant correlation with the development of LVDD, which is also evident from their area under the curve (AUC) values of 0.64 in the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve.

CONCLUSION

Our study concludes that LVDD is an early indicator for assessing the severity of liver cirrhosis in DCLD. The correlation of DCLD with prolonged QTc could predispose patients with DCLD to ventricular arrhythmias. Hence, such patients should undergo serum bilirubin tests, and electrocardiographic checks at regular intervals for early detection, to increase their overall survival rates.

Efficacy and safety of albumin for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background

Albumin acts as a scavenger of reactive oxygen species and an inhibitor of inflammatory processes that underlie hepatic encephalopathy (HE). However, the role of albumin in hepatic encephalopathy is not well-established. The authors performed this meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy and safety of albumin in the management of hepatic encephalopathy.

Methods

The authors carried out an extensive search across multiple databases, including MEDLINE (via PubMed), Embase, CENTRAL, and various trial registries, to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the impact of albumin administration in HE. The authors used a random-effects model for analyses and presented dichotomous outcomes and continuous outcomes as relative risk and mean difference, along with corresponding 95% CIs, respectively. Heterogeneity was assessed using both the I2 index and χ2 test.

Results

Our meta-analysis included 4 RCTs involving 306 patients. Our primary outcomes, mortality, and persistence of HE were reported by all four studies. Albumin was found to significantly decrease mortality in patients with HE [risk ratio (RR) 0.52, 95% CI 0.32-0.83; I2 =0%]. Persistence of HE was found to be comparable between the two groups (RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.68-1.00; I2 =24%). There was no significant difference between the albumin and control groups regarding length of hospital stay (MD -1.55, 95% CI -3.5 to 0.14; I2 =41%), adverse events (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.87-1.16; I2 =0%), and severe adverse events (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.59-1.35).

Conclusion

Albumin administration in patients with hepatic encephalopathy decreases mortality but does not significantly impact the persistence of HE. Further high-quality, large-scale randomized controlled trials are needed to provide conclusive evidence.

Human albumin infusion is safe and effective even in patients without acute kidney injury and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Human albumin (HA) solution is currently recommended only for patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) and acute kidney injury (AKI). However, its use in hospitalized patients is quite frequent. The objective was to compare the outcomes of patients receiving HA in recommended (Gr. A) vs. non-recommended (Gr. B) indications.

METHODS

In this prospective study, consecutive hospitalized patients who received HA were included. Apart from comparing the proportion of patients achieving resolution of hyponatremia, infection and hepatic encephalopathy among Gr. A and Gr. B, we also compared the in-hospital survival and performed a sub-group analysis of patients with the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) and decompensated cirrhosis (DC).

RESULTS

Of the 396 hospitalized patients who received HA, 180 had AKI and/or SBP (Gr. A), and 216 received albumin for non-recommended indications (Gr. B). The mean age, sex and etiology distribution were similar. The total dose of HA was higher (88 ± 61.62 g vs. 71.31 ± 488.17 g; p = 0.003) and the duration longer (4 ± 2.37 vs. 3.4 ± 1.82 days; p = 0.005) in Gr. A than B. The resolution of infection and HE was similar among both groups, while hyponatremia resolution was significantly higher in Gr. B (94.7%) than Gr. A (75.6%; p < 0.001). On Kaplan-Meier analysis, survival was significantly higher in Gr. B (94%) than Gr. A (78.9%; p < 0.001). The incidence of albumin-induced fluid overload was comparable (2.8% vs. 1.4%; p = 0.32). Patients with ACLF were sicker with a higher incidence of microbiologically proven infection, hepatic encephalopathy (HE) and hyponatremia than in the DC group. Resolution of infection and hyponatremia and in-hospital survival was significantly lower in the ACLF group (72.5%) than in the DC group (92.7%; p < 0.001). Eighty-six per cent of patients achieved resolution of ACLF.

CONCLUSIONS

HA infusion is safe and effective even in patients without AKI and SBP and leads to the resolution of infection, hyponatremia, HE and ACLF.

Review article: Emerging and current management of acute-on-chronic liver failure

BACKGROUND

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a clinically and pathophysiologically distinct condition from acutely decompensated cirrhosis and is characterised by systemic inflammation, extrahepatic organ failure, and high short-term mortality.

AIMS

To provide a narrative review of the diagnostic criteria, prognosis, epidemiology, and general management principles of ACLF. Four specific interventions that are explored in detail are intravenous albumin, extracorporeal liver assist devices, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, and liver transplantation.

METHODS

We searched PubMed and Cochrane databases for articles published up to July 2023.

RESULTS

Approximately 35% of hospital inpatients with decompensated cirrhosis have ACLF. There is significant heterogeneity in the criteria used to diagnose ACLF; different definitions identify different phenotypes with varying mortality. Criteria established by the European Association for the Study of the Liver were developed in prospective patient cohorts and are, to-date, the most well validated internationally. Systemic haemodynamic instability, renal dysfunction, coagulopathy, neurological dysfunction, and respiratory failure are key considerations when managing ACLF in the intensive care unit. Apart from liver transplantation, there are no accepted evidence-based treatments for ACLF, but several different approaches are under investigation.

CONCLUSION

The recognition of ACLF as a distinct entity from acutely decompensated cirrhosis has allowed for better patient stratification in clinical settings, facilitating earlier engagement with the intensive care unit and liver transplantation teams. Research priorities over the next decade should focus on exploring novel treatment strategies with a particular focus on which, when, and how patients with ACLF should be treated.

Establishment and validation of a prognosis nomogram for MIMIC-III patients with liver cirrhosis complicated with hepatic encephalopathy

INTRODUCE

The purpose of this study was to establish a comprehensive prognosis nomogram for patients with liver cirrhosis complicated with hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in the intensive care unit (ICU) and to evaluate the predictive value of the nomogram.

METHOD

This study analyzed 620 patients with liver cirrhosis complicated with HE from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III(MIMIC-III) database. The patients were randomly divided into two groups in a 7-to-3 ratio to form a training cohort (n = 434) and a validation cohort (n = 176). Cox regression analyses were used to identify associated risk variables. Based on the multivariate Cox regression model results, a nomogram was established using associated risk predictor variables to predict the 90-day survival rate of patients with cirrhosis complicated with HE. The new model was compared with the Sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) scoring model in terms of the concordance index (C-index), the area under the curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, the net reclassification improvement (NRI), the integrated discrimination improvement (IDI), calibration curve, and decision curve analysis (DCA).

RESULTS

This study showed that older age, higher mean heart rate, lower mean arterial pressure, lower mean temperature, higher SOFA score, higher RDW, and the use of albumin were risk factors for the prognosis of patients with liver cirrhosis complicated with HE. The use of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) was a protective factor. The performance of the nomogram was evaluated using the C-index, AUC, IDI value, NRI value, and DCA curve, showing that the nomogram was superior to that of the SOFA model alone. Calibration curve results showed that the nomogram had excellent calibration capability. The decision curve analysis confirmed the good clinical application ability of the nomogram.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first study of the 90-day survival rate prediction of cirrhotic patients with HE in ICU through the data of the MIMIC-III database. It is confirmed that the eight-factor nomogram has good efficiency in predicting the 90-day survival rate of patients.

Prognostic Value of Post-Operative C-Reactive Protein-Based Inflammatory Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer Patients: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Post-operative inflammation in cancer patients can be modulated by drugs and diets, but evidence on its prognostic role, which would be crucial for personalized treatment and surveillance schemes, remains rather limited. We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyse studies on the prognostic value of post-operative C-reactive protein (CRP)-based inflammatory biomarkers among patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) (PROSPERO#: CRD42022293832). PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane databases were searched until February 2023. Studies reporting associations between post-operative CRP, Glasgow Prognostic Score (GPS) or modified Glasgow Prognostic Score (mGPS) with overall survival (OS), CRC-specific survival (CSS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS) were included. Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the predictor-outcome associations were pooled using R-software, version 4.2. Sixteen studies (n = 6079) were included in the meta-analyses. Elevated post-operative CRP was a predictor of poor OS, CSS and RFS compared with low CRP levels [HR (95% CI): 1.72 (1.32-2.25); 1.63 (1.30-2.05); 2.23 (1.44-3.47), respectively]. A unit increase in post-operative GPS predicted poor OS [HR (95% Cl): 1.31 (1.14-1.51)]. Moreover, a unit increase in post-operative mGPS was associated with poor OS and CSS [HR (95% Cl): 1.93 (1.37-2.72); 3.16 (1.48-6.76), respectively]. Post-operative CRP-based inflammatory biomarkers have a significant prognostic role for patients with CRC. Prognostic value of these easy-to-obtain routine measurements thereby seems to outperform most of the much more complex blood- or tissue-based predictors in the current focus of multi-omics-based research. Future studies should validate our findings, establish optimal time for biomarker assessment and determine clinically useful cut-off values of these biomarkers for post-operative risk-stratification and treatment-response monitoring.

Prediction and prevention of the first episode of overt hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is one of the most important complications of patients with liver cirrhosis. In addition, HE is associated with a dismal prognosis and has detrimental effects on patients' quality of life. Thus, it is of pivotal importance to identify patients at high risk for overt HE (OHE) in whom primary prophylaxis may be justified. In this narrative review, we aim to provide insight into predictors and prediction tools for a first-time episode of OHE and to scrutinize the current level of evidence of primary prophylaxis. In recent decades, several cognitive tests, composite scores, and blood-based biomarkers have been demonstrated to be predictive of a first-time episode of OHE. Among the best validated are the established tests for minimal HE, such as the Psychometric Hepatic Encephalopathy Score, determination of the critical flicker frequency, Stroop EncephalApp, or the Animal Naming Test. Individualized risk stratification using blood-based biomarkers and cross-sectional imaging (sarcopenia and spontaneous portosystemic shunts) is coming to the fore, but validation in larger multicenter cohorts is often lacking. On the basis of current evidence, a recommendation for primary prophylaxis of a first episode of OHE cannot be made in general. Only 2 studies have investigated the prevention of a first-time OHE episode as the primary endpoint. In this narrative review, we provide a concise overview of the current evidence levels on prediction tools and pharmacological prevention of a first episode of OHE. In addition, we give an outlook on future research targets to improve knowledge on this important topic.

Human Albumin Infusion for the Management of Liver Cirrhosis and Its Complications: An Overview of Major Findings from Meta-analyses

INTRODUCTION

The role of human albumin (HA) infusion in cirrhotic patients has been increasingly recognized. This paper aims to summarize the evidence from meta-analyses regarding HA infusion for the management of cirrhosis and its complications.

METHODS

A systematic search in the PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane library databases, and in reference lists was conducted. All relevant meta-analyses were identified and their findings were reviewed. The Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR-2) checklist was used to evaluate the methodological quality and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) system to assess the quality of evidence for significant outcomes.

RESULTS

Among 300 papers initially identified, 18 meta-analyses have been included. Short- and long-term HA infusion at high doses decreased the mortality of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. In cirrhotic patients with ascites, long-term HA infusion reduced the recurrence of ascites, but not mortality. In cirrhotic patients undergoing large-volume paracentesis (LVP), HA infusion reduced the incidence of post-paracentesis circulatory dysfunction and hyponatremia, but not mortality or renal impairment. In cirrhotic patients with overt hepatic encephalopathy (HE), HA infusion improved the severity of overt HE, but not overall mortality. In cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), but not those with non-SBP infections, HA infusion reduced the mortality and renal impairment. In cirrhotic patients with type-1 hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), an increment of 100 g in cumulative HA dose increased 1.15-fold survival, but not HRS reversal. In these meta-analyses, the quality of methodology was low or critically low, and that of the evidence was from very low to moderate.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the limited evidence from these meta-analyses, HA infusion appears to be beneficial in cirrhotic patients with ascites, overt HE, and SBP and in those undergoing LVP, but not in those with non-SBP infections.

Use of human albumin infusion in cirrhotic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Human albumin infusion is effective for controlling systemic inflammation, thereby probably managing some liver cirrhosis-related complications, such as spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and hepatorenal syndrome. However, its clinical benefits remain controversial.

METHODS

EMBASE, PubMed, and Cochrane Library databases were searched. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) regarding use of human albumin infusion in cirrhotic patients were eligible. Mortality and incidence of liver cirrhosis-related complications were pooled. Effect of human albumin infusion on mortality was also evaluated by subgroup analyses primarily according to target population and duration of human albumin infusion treatment. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

Forty-two RCTs were finally included. Meta-analysis showed that human albumin infusion could significantly decrease the mortality of cirrhotic patients (OR = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.67-0.98, p = 0.03). Subgroup analyses showed that human albumin infusion could significantly decrease the mortality of cirrhotic patients with SBP (OR = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.20-0.64, p = 0.0005) and HE (OR = 0.43, 95% CI = 0.22-0.85, p = 0.02), but not those with ascites or non-SBP infections or undergoing large-volume paracentesis. Short-term human albumin infusion treatment could significantly decrease short-term mortality (OR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.50-0.89, p = 0.005), but not long-term mortality. Long-term human albumin infusion treatment could not significantly decrease long-term mortality (OR = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.48-1.08, p = 0.11). In addition, human albumin infusion could significantly decrease the incidence of renal impairment (OR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.45-0.88, p = 0.007) and ascites (OR = 0.45, 95% CI = 0.25-0.81, p = 0.007), but not infections or gastrointestinal bleeding.

CONCLUSIONS

Human albumin infusion may improve the outcomes of cirrhotic patients. However, its indications for different complications and infusion strategy in liver cirrhosis should be further explored.

Albumin administration in patients with cirrhosis: Current role and novel perspectives

Mortality in cirrhosis is mostly associated with the development of clinical decompensation, characterized by ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, variceal bleeding, or jaundice. Therefore, it is important to prevent and manage such complications. Traditionally, the pathophysiology of decompensated cirrhosis was explained by the peripheral arterial vasodilation hypothesis, but it is currently understood that decompensation might also be driven by a systemic inflammatory state (the systemic inflammation hypothesis). Considering its oncotic and nononcotic properties, albumin has been thoroughly evaluated in the prevention and management of several of these decompensating events. There are formal evidence-based recommendations from international medical societies proposing that albumin be administered in individuals with cirrhosis undergoing large-volume paracentesis, patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, those with acute kidney injury (even before the etiological diagnosis), and those with hepatorenal syndrome. Moreover, there are a few randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses suggesting a possible role for albumin infusion in patients with cirrhosis and ascites (long-term albumin administration), individuals with hepatic encephalopathy, and those with acute-on-chronic liver failure undergoing modest-volume paracentesis. Further studies are necessary to elucidate whether albumin administration also benefits patients with cirrhosis and other complications, such as individuals with extraperitoneal infections, those hospitalized with decompensated cirrhosis and hypoalbuminemia, and patients with hyponatremia.