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Erradhouani C, Bortoli S, Aït-Aïssa S, Coumoul X, Brion F. Metabolic disrupting chemicals in the intestine: the need for biologically relevant models: Zebrafish: what can we learn from this small environment-sensitive fish? FEBS Open Bio 2024. [PMID: 39218795 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the concept of endocrine disruptors first appeared almost 30 years ago, the relatively recent involvement of these substances in the etiology of metabolic pathologies (obesity, diabetes, hepatic steatosis, etc.) has given rise to the concept of Metabolic Disrupting Chemicals (MDCs). Organs such as the liver and adipose tissue have been well studied in the context of metabolic disruption by these substances. The intestine, however, has been relatively unexplored despite its close link with these organs. In vivo models are useful for the study of the effects of MDCs in the intestine and, in addition, allow investigations into interactions with the rest of the organism. In the latter respect, the zebrafish is an animal model which is used increasingly for the characterization of endocrine disruptors and its use as a model for assessing effects on the intestine will, no doubt, expand. This review aims to highlight the importance of the intestine in metabolism and present the zebrafish as a relevant alternative model for investigating the effect of pollutants in the intestine by focusing, in particular, on cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A), one of the major molecular players in endogenous and MDCs metabolism in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chedi Erradhouani
- Ecotoxicologie des Substances et des Milieux, INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
- Université Paris Cité, France
- Inserm UMR-S 1124, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Bortoli
- Université Paris Cité, France
- Inserm UMR-S 1124, Paris, France
| | - Selim Aït-Aïssa
- Ecotoxicologie des Substances et des Milieux, INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Xavier Coumoul
- Université Paris Cité, France
- Inserm UMR-S 1124, Paris, France
| | - François Brion
- Ecotoxicologie des Substances et des Milieux, INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
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2
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Aboragah AA, Sherlock DN, Wichasit N, Mauck J, Loor JJ. Intermediate metabolites and molecular correlates of one‑carbon and nutrient metabolism differ in tissues from Holstein fetuses. Res Vet Sci 2023; 164:104988. [PMID: 37678126 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.104988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Methionine and folate cycles along with transsulfuration comprise the one‑carbon metabolism (OCM) pathway. Amino acids and other nutrients feed into OCM, which is central to cellular function. mRNA abundance, proteins (Western blotting), and metabolites (GC-MC) associated with OCM were used to characterize these mechanisms in fetal tissues. Liver, whole intestine, and semitendinosus muscle were harvested from fetuses in 6 multiparous Holstein cows (37 kg milk/d, 100 d gestation). Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED (SAS 9.4). Protein abundance of BHMT was greatest (P < 0.01) in liver suggesting active remethylation of homocysteine to methionine. This idea was supported by the greater (P < 0.05) mRNA of CBS, BHMT, MTR, SHMT1, and MAT1A (encoding OCM enzymes) in liver. The antioxidant protein GPX3 had greatest (P < 0.05) abundance in liver, whereas the glutathione-transferase GSTM1 was 5-fold greater (P < 0.05) in intestine than liver and muscle. Greatest concentrations of glycine, serine, and taurine along with lower cysteine underscored the relevance of OCM in fetal liver. Phosphoethanolamine concentration was greatest (4-fold, P < 0.05) in intestine and along with the greatest (P < 0.05) mRNA of SLC44A1 (choline transporter), CHKA, and CEPT1 underscored the importance of the CDP-choline pathway. Greatest (P < 0.05) mRNA of PPARA, CPT1A, and HMGCS2 along with lower PCK1 in liver highlighted a potential reliance on fatty acid oxidation. In contrast, greater (P < 0.05) concentration of myo-inositol in muscle and intestine suggested both tissues rely on glucose as main source of energy. Future research should address how environmental inputs such as maternal nutrition alter these pathways in fetal tissues and their phenotypic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad A Aboragah
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA; Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Nithat Wichasit
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA; Department of Agricultural Science, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand
| | - John Mauck
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA
| | - Juan J Loor
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA; Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801, USA.
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3
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Aita R, Aldea D, Hassan S, Hur J, Pellon-Cardenas O, Cohen E, Chen L, Shroyer N, Christakos S, Verzi MP, Fleet JC. Genomic analysis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 action in mouse intestine reveals compartment and segment-specific gene regulatory effects. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102213. [PMID: 35779631 PMCID: PMC9358460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (VD) regulates intestinal calcium absorption in the small intestine (SI) and also reduces risk of colonic inflammation and cancer. However, the intestine compartment-specific target genes of VD signaling are unknown. Here, we examined VD action across three functional compartments of the intestine using RNA-seq to measure VD-induced changes in gene expression and Chromatin Immunoprecipitation with next generation sequencing to measure vitamin D receptor (VDR) genomic binding. We found that VD regulated the expression of 55 shared transcripts in the SI crypt, SI villi, and in the colon, including Cyp24a1, S100g, Trpv6, and Slc30a10. Other VD-regulated transcripts were unique to the SI crypt (162 up, 210 down), villi (199 up, 63 down), or colon (102 up, 28 down), but this did not correlate with mRNA levels of the VDR. Furthermore, bioinformatic analysis identified unique VD-regulated biological functions in each compartment. VDR-binding sites were found in 70% of upregulated genes from the colon and SI villi but were less common in upregulated genes from the SI crypt and among downregulated genes, suggesting some transcript-level VD effects are likely indirect. Consistent with this, we show that VD regulated the expression of other transcription factors and their downstream targets. Finally, we demonstrate that compartment-specific VD-mediated gene expression was associated with compartment-specific VDR-binding sites (<30% of targets) and enrichment of intestinal transcription factor-binding motifs within VDR-binding peaks. Taken together, our data reveal unique spatial patterns of VD action in the intestine and suggest novel mechanisms that could account for compartment-specific functions of this hormone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Aita
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Dennis Aldea
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Sohaib Hassan
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Joseph Hur
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Oscar Pellon-Cardenas
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Evan Cohen
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Noah Shroyer
- Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Sylvia Christakos
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA.
| | - Michael P Verzi
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA.
| | - James C Fleet
- Department of Nutritional Science, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA.
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4
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Noh K, Chow ECY, Quach HP, Groothuis GMM, Tirona RG, Pang KS. Significance of the Vitamin D Receptor on Crosstalk with Nuclear Receptors and Regulation of Enzymes and Transporters. AAPS J 2022; 24:71. [PMID: 35650371 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-022-00719-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The vitamin D receptor (VDR), in addition to other nuclear receptors, the pregnane X receptor (PXR) and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), is involved in the regulation of enzymes, transporters and receptors, and therefore intimately affects drug disposition, tissue health, and the handling of endogenous and exogenous compounds. This review examines the role of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or calcitriol, the natural VDR ligand, on activation of the VDR and its crosstalk with other nuclear receptors towards the regulation of enzymes and transporters, notably many of the cytochrome P450s including CYP3A4 and sulfotransferase 2A1 (SULT2A1) as well as cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). Moreover, the VDR upregulates the intestinal channel, TRPV6, for calcium absorption, LDL receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) in brain for β-amyloid peptide efflux and influx, the sodium phosphate transporters (NaPi), the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) and organic solute transporters (OSTα-OSTβ) for bile acid absorption and efflux, respectively, the renal organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3) and several of the ATP-binding cassette protein transporters-the multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) and the multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs). Hence, the role of the VDR is increasingly being recognized for its therapeutic potential and pharmacologic activity, giving rise to drug-drug interactions (DDI). Therapeutically, ligand-activated VDR shows anti-inflammatory effects towards the suppression of inflammatory mediators, improves cognition by upregulating amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide clearance in brain, and maintains phosphate, calcium, and parathyroid hormone (PTH) balance and kidney function and bone health, demonstrating the crucial roles of the VDR in disease progression and treatment of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keumhan Noh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada.,Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen, 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02142, USA
| | - Edwin C Y Chow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada.,Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Holly P Quach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Geny M M Groothuis
- Pharmacokinetics, Toxicology and Targeting, Department of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rommel G Tirona
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - K Sandy Pang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada.
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5
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Skoda J, Dohnalova K, Chalupsky K, Stahl A, Templin M, Maixnerova J, Micuda S, Grøntved L, Braeuning A, Pavek P. Off-target lipid metabolism disruption by the mouse constitutive androstane receptor ligand TCPOBOP in humanized mice. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 197:114905. [PMID: 34971590 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) controls xenobiotic clearance, regulates liver glucose, lipid metabolism, and energy homeostasis. These functions have been mainly discovered using the prototypical mouse-specific CAR ligand TCPOBOP in wild-type or CAR null mice. However, TCPOBOP is reported to result in some off-target metabolic effects in CAR null mice. In this study, we compared the metabolic effects of TCPOBOP using lipidomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic analyses in wild-type and humanized CAR-PXR-CYP3A4/3A7 mice. In the model, human CAR retains its constitutive activity in metabolism regulation; however, it is not activated by TCPOBOB. Notably, we observed that TCPOBOP affected lipid homeostasis by elevating serum and liver triglyceride levels and promoted hepatocyte hypertrophy in humanized CAR mice. Hepatic lipidomic analysis revealed a significant accumulation of triglycerides and decrease of its metabolites in humanized CAR mice. RNA-seq analysis has shown divergent gene expression levels in wild-type and humanized CAR mice. Gene expression regulation in humanized mice is mainly involved in lipid metabolic processes and in the PPAR, leptin, thyroid, and circadian clock pathways. In contrast, CAR activation by TCPOBOP in wild-type mice reduced liver and plasma triglyceride levels and induced a typical transcriptomic proliferative response in the liver. In summary, we identified TCPOBOP as a disruptor of lipid metabolism in humanized CAR mice. The divergent effects of TCPOBOP in humanized mice in comparison with the prototypical CAR-mediated response in WT mice warrant the use of appropriate model ligands and humanized animal models during the testing of endocrine disruption and the characterization of adverse outcome pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Skoda
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovskeho 1203, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Klara Dohnalova
- Czech Centre for Phenogenomics, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Katerinska 32, 121 08 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Chalupsky
- Czech Centre for Phenogenomics, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Aaron Stahl
- NMI - Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tuebingen, Markwiesenstr. 55, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Markus Templin
- NMI - Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tuebingen, Markwiesenstr. 55, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Jana Maixnerova
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovskeho 1203, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Micuda
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty in Hradec Kralove, Charles University, Simkova 870, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Lars Grøntved
- Functional Genomics and Metabolism Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M 5230, Denmark
| | - Albert Braeuning
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin 10589, Germany
| | - Petr Pavek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovskeho 1203, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.
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6
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Fujino C, Sanoh S, Katsura T. Variation in Expression of Cytochrome P450 3A Isoforms and Toxicological Effects: Endo- and Exogenous Substances as Regulatory Factors and Substrates. Biol Pharm Bull 2021; 44:1617-1634. [PMID: 34719640 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b21-00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The CYP3A subfamily, which includes isoforms CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 in humans, plays important roles in the metabolism of various endogenous and exogenous substances. Gene and protein expression of CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 show large inter-individual differences, which are caused by many endogenous and exogenous factors. Inter-individual differences can cause negative outcomes, such as adverse drug events and disease development. Therefore, it is important to understand the variations in CYP3A expression caused by endo- and exogenous factors, as well as the variation in the metabolism and kinetics of endo- and exogenous substrates. In this review, we summarize the factors regulating CYP3A expression, such as bile acids, hormones, microRNA, inflammatory cytokines, drugs, environmental chemicals, and dietary factors. In addition, variations in CYP3A expression under pathological conditions, such as coronavirus disease 2019 and liver diseases, are described as examples of the physiological effects of endogenous factors. We also summarize endogenous and exogenous substrates metabolized by CYP3A isoforms, such as cholesterol, bile acids, hormones, arachidonic acid, vitamin D, and drugs. The relationship between the changes in the kinetics of these substrates and the toxicological effects in our bodies are discussed. The usefulness of these substrates and metabolites as endogenous biomarkers for CYP3A activity is also discussed. Notably, we focused on discrimination between CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 to understand inter-individual differences in CYP3A expression and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieri Fujino
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmaceutics and Therapeutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ritsumeikan University
| | - Seigo Sanoh
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wakayama Medical University
| | - Toshiya Katsura
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmaceutics and Therapeutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ritsumeikan University
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7
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Li AP. In Vitro Human Cell–Based Experimental Models for the Evaluation of Enteric Metabolism and Drug Interaction Potential of Drugs and Natural Products. Drug Metab Dispos 2020; 48:980-992. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.000053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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8
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Kuno T, Hirayama-Kurogi M, Ito S, Ohtsuki S. Proteomic analysis of small intestinal epithelial cells in antibiotic-treated mice: Changes in drug transporters and metabolizing enzymes. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2019; 34:159-162. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 12/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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9
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Kittayaruksakul S, Sawasvirojwong S, Noitem R, Pongkorpsakol P, Muanprasat C, Chatsudthipong V. Activation of constitutive androstane receptor inhibits intestinal CFTR-mediated chloride transport. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 111:1249-1259. [PMID: 30841439 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily plays an important role in the xenobiotic metabolism and disposition. It has been reported that CAR regulates the expression of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in the intestine, such as multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2/3 (MRP2 and MRP3). In this study, we investigated the role of CAR in the regulation of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-mediated chloride transport in T84 human colonic epithelial cells and mouse intestinal tissues. Treatments of T84 cell monolayers with specific CAR agonists (CITCO and phenytoin at concentrations of 1 μM and 5 μM, respectively) for 24 h decreased transepithelial Cl- secretion in response to cAMP-dependent agonist. This inhibition was abolished by coincubation of CITCO with a CAR antagonist, CINPA1. We confirmed that an inhibitory effect of CAR agonists was not due to their cytotoxicity. Basolateral membrane permeabilization experiments also revealed that activation of CAR decreased apical Cl- current stimulated by both CPT-cAMP and genistein (a direct CFTR activator). Such activation also reduced both mRNA and protein expression of CFTR. Furthermore, CITCO decreased cholera toxin (CT)-induced Cl- secretion across T84 cell monolayers. In ICR mice, administration of TCPOBOP (3 mg/kgBW), a murine-specific CAR agonist, for 7 days produced significant decreases in CFTR mRNA and protein expressions in intestinal tissues. Interestingly, TCPOBOP also inhibited CT-induced intestinal fluid accumulation in mice. This is the first evidence showing that CFTR was downregulated by CAR activation in the intestine. Our findings suggest that CAR has potential as a new drug target for treatment of condition with hyperactivity/ hyperfunction of CFTR especially secretory diarrheas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suticha Kittayaruksakul
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sutthipong Sawasvirojwong
- Chakri Naruebodindra Medical Institute, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Samut Prakan, Thailand
| | - Rattikarn Noitem
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Pawin Pongkorpsakol
- Translational Medicine Graduate Program, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chatchai Muanprasat
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand; Excellent Center for Drug Discovery, Thailand Center of Excellence for Life Sciences (TCELS), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Varanuj Chatsudthipong
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand; Research Center of Transport Protein for Medical Innovation, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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10
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Kim KH, Choi JM, Li F, Dong B, Wooton-Kee CR, Arizpe A, Anakk S, Jung SY, Hartig SM, Moore DD. Constitutive Androstane Receptor Differentially Regulates Bile Acid Homeostasis in Mouse Models of Intrahepatic Cholestasis. Hepatol Commun 2018; 3:147-159. [PMID: 30620001 PMCID: PMC6312660 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Bile acid (BA) homeostasis is tightly regulated by multiple transcription factors, including farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and small heterodimer partner (SHP). We previously reported that loss of the FXR/SHP axis causes severe intrahepatic cholestasis, similar to human progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 5 (PFIC5). In this study, we found that constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) is endogenously activated in Fxr:Shp double knockout (DKO) mice. To test the hypothesis that CAR activation protects DKO mice from further liver damage, we generated Fxr;Shp;Car triple knockout (TKO) mice. In TKO mice, residual adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binding cassette, subfamily B member 11 (ABCB11; alias bile salt export pump [BSEP]) function and fecal BA excretion are completely impaired, resulting in severe hepatic and biliary damage due to excess BA overload. In addition, we discovered that pharmacologic CAR activation has different effects on intrahepatic cholestasis of different etiologies. In DKO mice, CAR agonist 1,4‐bis[2‐(3,5‐dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene (TCPOBOP; here on TC) treatment attenuated cholestatic liver injury, as expected. However, in the PFIC2 model Bsep knockout (BKO) mice, TC treatment exhibited opposite effects that reflect increased BA accumulation and liver injury. These contrasting results may be linked to differential regulation of systemic cholesterol homeostasis in DKO and BKO livers. TC treatment selectively up‐regulated hepatic cholesterol levels in BKO mice, supporting de novo BA synthesis. Conclusion: CAR activation in DKO mice is generally protective against cholestatic liver injury in these mice, which model PFIC5, but not in the PFIC2 model BKO mice. Our results emphasize the importance of the genetic and physiologic background when implementing targeted therapies to treat intrahepatic cholestasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Ho Kim
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | - Jong Min Choi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX.,Center for Drug Discovery Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | - Bingning Dong
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | | | - Armando Arizpe
- School of Natural Science University of Texas Austin Austin TX
| | - Sayeepriyadarshini Anakk
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana IL
| | - Sung Yun Jung
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX.,Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | - Sean M Hartig
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX.,Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
| | - David D Moore
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX
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11
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Dietrich K, Baumgart J, Eshkind L, Reuter L, Gödtel-Armbrust U, Butt E, Musheev M, Marini F, More P, Grosser T, Niehrs C, Wojnowski L, Mathäs M. Health-Relevant Phenotypes in the Offspring of Mice Given CAR Activators Prior to Pregnancy. Drug Metab Dispos 2018; 46:1827-1835. [PMID: 30154105 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.082925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic induction in response to drugs and environmental chemicals affects drug therapies and energy metabolism. We investigated whether the induction is transmitted to the offspring. We injected 3-day- and 6-week-old F0 female mice with TCPOBOP, an activator of the nuclear receptor constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3), and mated them 1-6 weeks afterward. We detected in the offspring long-lasting alterations of CAR-mediated drug disposition, energy metabolism, and lipid profile. The transmission to the first filial generation (F1) was mediated by TCPOBOP transfer from the F0 adipose tissue via milk, as revealed by embryo transfer, crossfostering experiments, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. The important environmental pollutant PCB153 activated CAR in the F1 generation in a manner similar to TCPOBOP. Our findings indicate that chemicals accumulating and persisting in adipose tissue may exert liver-mediated, health-relevant effects on F1 offspring simply via physical transmission in milk. Such effects may occur even if treatment has been terminated far ahead of conception. This should be considered in assessing developmental toxicity and in the long-term follow-up of offspring of mothers exposed to both approved and investigational drugs, and to chemicals with known or suspected accumulation in adipose tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Dietrich
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Jan Baumgart
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Leonid Eshkind
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Lea Reuter
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Ute Gödtel-Armbrust
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Elke Butt
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Michael Musheev
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Federico Marini
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Piyush More
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Tanja Grosser
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Leszek Wojnowski
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
| | - Marianne Mathäs
- Department of Pharmacology (K.D., L.R., U.G.-A., P.M., T.G., L.W., M.Ma.) and Institute of Medical Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics (F.M.), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Translational Animal Research Center (J.B., L.E.), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Experimental Biomedicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (E.B.); Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany (M.Mu., C.N.); and Division of Molecular Embryology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance), Heidelberg, Germany (C.N.)
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Fu ZD, Selwyn FP, Cui JY, Klaassen CD. RNA-Seq Profiling of Intestinal Expression of Xenobiotic Processing Genes in Germ-Free Mice. Drug Metab Dispos 2017; 45:1225-1238. [PMID: 28939687 PMCID: PMC5676297 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.117.077313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal bacteria can affect xenobiotic metabolism through both direct bacterial enzyme-catalyzed modification of the xenobiotics and indirect alterations of the expression of host genes. To determine how intestinal bacteria affect the expression of host xenobiotic-processing genes (XPGs), the mRNA profiles of 303 XPGs were characterized by RNA sequencing in four intestinal sections and compared with that in the liver from adult male conventional (CV) and germ-free (GF) mice. Fifty-four XPGs were not expressed in the intestine of either CV or GF mice. The GF condition altered the expression of 116 XPGs in at least one intestinal section but had no effect on 133 XPGs. Many cytochrome P450 family members such as Cyp1a, Cyp2b10, Cyp2c, and most Cyp3a members, as well as carboxylesterase (Ces) 2a were expressed lower in the intestine of GF than CV mice. In contrast, GF mice had higher intestinal expression of some phase I oxidases (alcohol dehydrogenase 1, aldehyde dehydrogenase a1l1 and 4a1, as well as flavin monooxygenase 5) and phase II conjugation enzymes (UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1a1, and sulfotransferase 1c2, 1d1, and 2b1). Several transporters in the intestine, such as bile acid transporters (apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter, organic solute transporter α and β), peptide transporter 1, and multidrug and toxin extrusion protein 1, exhibited higher expression in GF mice. In conclusion, lack of intestinal bacteria alters the expression of a large number of XPGs in the host intestine, some of which are section specific. Cyp3a is downregulated in both the liver and intestine of GF mice, which probably contributes to altered xenobiotic metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zidong Donna Fu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Felcy P Selwyn
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Julia Yue Cui
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Curtis D Klaassen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Parthenolide suppresses non-small cell lung cancer GLC-82 cells growth via B-Raf/MAPK/Erk pathway. Oncotarget 2017; 8:23436-23447. [PMID: 28423582 PMCID: PMC5410316 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.15584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), one type of lung cancer, owns high rates of morbidity and mortality. B-Raf is one of the promising oncogenic drivers of NSCLC. Parthenolide, a natural product, is mainly extracted from the herbal plant Tanacetum parthenium. The effect of parthenolide on NSCLC cells and its potential as B-Raf inhibitor were studied in this study. It's shown that parthenolide exhibited the strong cytotoxicity against NSCLC cells with IC50 ranging from 6.07 ± 0.45 to 15.38 ± 1.13 μM. Parthenolide was also able to induce apoptosis, suppress proliferation and invasion in NSCLC cells. In terms of the involved mechanism, parthenolide suppressed GLC-82 cell response via targeting on B-Raf and inhibiting MAPK/Erk pathway signaling. The effect of parthenolide on B-Raf and MAPK/Erk pathway was further confirmed by RNA interference of B-Raf. Decreased expression of c-Myc in protein and mRNA level was also discovered, which is considered as the further downstream of the MAPK/Erk pathway. In addition, STAT3 activity inhibition by parthenolide contributed to its effect on GLC-82 cells, which is independent of PI3K pathway signaling and GSK3. All above provide an insight to understand the action of parthenolide as a potential B-Raf inhibitor in treatment of NSCLC.
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Li CY, Lee S, Cade S, Kuo LJ, Schultz IR, Bhatt DK, Prasad B, Bammler TK, Cui JY. Novel Interactions between Gut Microbiome and Host Drug-Processing Genes Modify the Hepatic Metabolism of the Environmental Chemicals Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers. Drug Metab Dispos 2017; 45:1197-1214. [PMID: 28864748 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.117.077024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome is a novel frontier in xenobiotic metabolism. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), especially BDE-47 (2, 2', 4, 4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether) and BDE-99 (2, 2', 4, 4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether), are among the most abundant and persistent environmental contaminants that produce a variety of toxicities. Little is known about how the gut microbiome affects the hepatic metabolism of PBDEs and the PBDE-mediated regulation of drug-processing genes (DPGs) in vivo. The goal of this study was to determine the role of gut microbiome in modulating the hepatic biotransformation of PBDEs. Nine-week-old male C57BL/6J conventional (CV) or germ-free (GF) mice were treated with vehicle, BDE-47 or BDE-99 (100 μmol/kg) for 4 days. Following BDE-47 treatment, GF mice had higher levels of 5-OH-BDE-47 but lower levels of four other metabolites in liver than CV mice; whereas following BDE-99 treatment GF mice had lower levels of four minor metabolites in liver than CV mice. RNA sequencing demonstrated that the hepatic expression of DPGs was regulated by both PBDEs and enterotypes. Under basal conditions, the lack of gut microbiome upregulated the Cyp2c subfamily but downregulated the Cyp3a subfamily. Following PBDE exposure, certain DPGs were differentially regulated by PBDEs in a gut microbiome-dependent manner. Interestingly, the lack of gut microbiome augmented PBDE-mediated upregulation of many DPGs, such as Cyp1a2 and Cyp3a11 in mouse liver, which was further confirmed by targeted metabolomics. The lack of gut microbiome also augmented the Cyp3a enzyme activity in liver. In conclusion, our study has unveiled a novel interaction between gut microbiome and the hepatic biotransformation of PBDEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Yanfei Li
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Soowan Lee
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Sara Cade
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Li-Jung Kuo
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Irvin R Schultz
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Deepak K Bhatt
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Bhagwat Prasad
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Theo K Bammler
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
| | - Julia Yue Cui
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (C.Y.L., S.L., T.K.B., J.Y.C.), and Department of Pharmaceutics (D.K.B., B.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Sequim, Washington (S.C., L.-J.K., I.R.S.)
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