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Boichot V, Menetrier F, Saliou JM, Lirussi F, Canon F, Folia M, Heydel JM, Hummel T, Menzel S, Steinke M, Hackenberg S, Schwartz M, Neiers F. Characterization of human oxidoreductases involved in aldehyde odorant metabolism. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4876. [PMID: 36966166 PMCID: PMC10039900 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31769-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidoreductases are major enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism. Consequently, they are essential in the chemoprotection of the human body. Many xenobiotic metabolism enzymes have been shown to be involved in chemosensory tissue protection. Among them, some were additionally shown to be involved in chemosensory perception, acting in signal termination as well as in the generation of metabolites that change the activation pattern of chemosensory receptors. Oxidoreductases, especially aldehyde dehydrogenases and aldo-keto reductases, are the first barrier against aldehyde compounds, which include numerous odorants. Using a mass spectrometry approach, we characterized the most highly expressed members of these families in the human nasal mucus sampled in the olfactory vicinity. Their expression was also demonstrated using immunohistochemistry in human epitheliums sampled in the olfactory vicinity. Recombinant enzymes corresponding to three highly expressed human oxidoreductases (ALDH1A1, ALDH3A1, AKR1B10) were used to demonstrate the high enzymatic activity of these enzymes toward aldehyde odorants. The structure‒function relationship set based on the enzymatic parameters characterization of a series of aldehyde odorant compounds was supported by the X-ray structure resolution of human ALDH3A1 in complex with octanal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Boichot
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Franck Menetrier
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Jean-Michel Saliou
- CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, UAR CNRS 2014-US Inserm 41-PLBS, University of Lille, Lille, France
| | - Frederic Lirussi
- UMR 1231, Lipides Nutrition Cancer, INSERM, 21000, Dijon, France
- UFR des Sciences de Santé, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25000, Besançon, France
- Plateforme PACE, Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Besançon, 25000, Besançon, France
| | - Francis Canon
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Mireille Folia
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Dijon University Hospital, 21000, Dijon, France
| | - Jean-Marie Heydel
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell and Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Susanne Menzel
- Smell and Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Maria Steinke
- Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Roentgenring 11, 97070, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Roentgenring 11, 97070, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Hackenberg
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Mathieu Schwartz
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.
| | - Fabrice Neiers
- Flavour Perception: Molecular Mechanisms (Flavours), INRAE, CNRS, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.
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Younus H, Arsalan A, Alam MF. Arsenic inhibits human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase: Mechanism and a population-based study. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 243:125358. [PMID: 31759211 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase (hsALDH) is an important detoxifying enzyme and maintains oral health. Subjects with low hsALDH activity are at a risk of developing oral cancers. Arsenic (As) toxicity causes many health problems in humans. The objective of this population-based study was to correlate As contamination and hence low hsALDH activity with high incidence of cancer cases in Bareilly district of India. Here, it was observed that As inhibited hsALDH (IC50 value: 33.5 ± 2.5 μM), and the mechanism of inhibition was mixed type (in between competitive and non-competitive). Binding of As to hsALDH changed the conformation of the enzyme. A static quenching mechanism was observed between the enzyme and As with a binding constant (Kb) of 9.77 × 104 M-1. There is one binding site for As on hsALDH molecule. Further, the activity of hsALDH in volunteers living in regions of higher As levels in drinking water (Bahroli and Mirganj village of Bareilly district, India), and those living in region having safe levels of As (Aligarh city, India) was determined. The As level in the saliva samples of the volunteers was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Low hsALDH activity was found in volunteers living in the region of higher As levels. The activity of hsALDH and As concentration in the saliva was found to be negatively correlated (r = - 0.427, p < 0.0001). Therefore, we speculate that the high incidence of cancer cases reported in Bareilly district may be due to higher As contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hina Younus
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India.
| | - Abdullah Arsalan
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Md Fazle Alam
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
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Citral Inhibition of Human Salivary Aldehyde Dehydrogenase. Cell Biochem Biophys 2019; 78:31-42. [PMID: 31732914 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-019-00891-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase (hsALDH) protects us from the toxic effect of aldehydes. It has both diagnostic and therapeutic importance. Citral possesses many biological and pharmacological properties. The aim of this work was to investigate the inhibitory effect and the mechanism of inhibition of citral on hsALDH. Citral inhibits the dehydrogenase activity of hsALDH. It decreased the substrate affinity and to a lesser extent, the catalytic efficiency of hsALDH. Citral showed linear mixed-type inhibition with a higher tendency of competitive behavior with little, but significant, non-competitive inhibition. The nucleophilicity of active site Cys residue is not a significant contributing factor in the inhibition process. Citral shows uncompetitive inhibition towards the co-enzyme (NAD+). α-helix and β-sheet content of the enzyme were changed in presence of citral. Biophysical studies showed that citral quenches the intrinsic fluorescence of hsALDH in a static manner by forming complex with the enzyme. Molecular docking study showed that both the isomers of citral bind to the catalytic site of hsALDH interacting with few evolutionary preserved amino acid residues through multiple non-covalent interactions. Ligand efficiency metrics values indicate that citral is an efficient ligand for the enzyme in terms of its physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties.
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Laskar AA, Danishuddin, Khan SH, Subbarao N, Younus H. Enhancement in the Catalytic Activity of Human Salivary Aldehyde Dehydrogenase by Alliin from Garlic: Implications in Aldehyde Toxicity and Oral Health. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2019; 20:506-516. [PMID: 31038061 DOI: 10.2174/1389201020666190416140817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lower human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase (hsALDH) activity increases the risk of aldehyde mediated pathogenesis including oral cancer. Alliin, the bioactive compound of garlic, exhibits many beneficial health effects. OBJECTIVE To study the effect of alliin on hsALDH activity. METHODS Enzyme kinetics was performed to study the effect of alliin on the activity of hsALDH. Different biophysical techniques were employed for structural and binding studies. Docking analysis was done to predict the binding region and the type of binding forces. RESULTS Alliin enhanced the dehydrogenase activity of the enzyme. It slightly reduced the Km and significantly enhanced the Vmax value. At 1 µM alliin concentration, the initial reaction rate increased by about two times. Further, it enhanced the hsALDH esterase activity. Biophysical studies indicated a strong complex formation between the enzyme and alliin (binding constant, Kb: 2.35 ± 0.14 x 103 M-1). It changes the secondary structure of hsALDH. Molecular docking study indicated that alliin interacts to the enzyme near the substrate binding region involving some active site residues that are evolutionary conserved. There was a slight increase in the nucleophilicity of active site cysteine in the presence of alliin. Ligand efficiency metrics values indicate that alliin is an efficient ligand for the enzyme. CONCLUSION Alliin activates the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Hence, consumption of alliincontaining garlic preparations or alliin supplements and use of alliin in pure form may lower aldehyde related pathogenesis including oral carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaj A Laskar
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Danishuddin
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Shaheer H Khan
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Naidu Subbarao
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Hina Younus
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
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Ahmed Laskar A, Younus H. Aldehyde toxicity and metabolism: the role of aldehyde dehydrogenases in detoxification, drug resistance and carcinogenesis. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:42-64. [DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2018.1555587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amaj Ahmed Laskar
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - Hina Younus
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
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Kinetic and biophysical investigation of the inhibitory effect of caffeine on human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase: Implications in oral health and chemotherapy. J Mol Struct 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2017.12.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Park YS, Choi UJ, Nam NH, Choi SJ, Nasir A, Lee SG, Kim KJ, Jung GY, Choi S, Shim JY, Park S, Yoo TH. Engineering an aldehyde dehydrogenase toward its substrates, 3-hydroxypropanal and NAD +, for enhancing the production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17155. [PMID: 29214999 PMCID: PMC5719400 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15400-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) can be produced via the biological route involving two enzymatic reactions: dehydration of glycerol to 3-hydroxypropanal (3-HPA) and then oxidation to 3-HP. However, commercial production of 3-HP using recombinant microorganisms has been hampered with several problems, some of which are associated with the toxicity of 3-HPA and the efficiency of NAD+ regeneration. We engineered α-ketoglutaric semialdehyde dehydrogenase (KGSADH) from Azospirillum brasilense for the second reaction to address these issues. The residues in the binding sites for the substrates, 3-HPA and NAD+, were randomized, and the resulting libraries were screened for higher activity. Isolated KGSADH variants had significantly lower Km values for both the substrates. The enzymes also showed higher substrate specificities for aldehyde and NAD+, less inhibition by NADH, and greater resistance to inactivation by 3-HPA than the wild-type enzyme. A recombinant Pseudomonas denitrificans strain with one of the engineered KGSADH variants exhibited less accumulation of 3-HPA, decreased levels of inactivation of the enzymes, and higher cell growth than that with the wild-type KGSADH. The flask culture of the P. denitrificans strain with the mutant KGSADH resulted in about 40% increase of 3-HP titer (53 mM) compared with that using the wild-type enzyme (37 mM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Seop Park
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Un Jong Choi
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Nguyen Hoai Nam
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Sang Jin Choi
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Abdul Nasir
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Sun-Gu Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Pusan National University, Pusan, 46241, Korea
| | - Kyung Jin Kim
- School of Life Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Korea
| | - Gyoo Yeol Jung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, 37673, Korea
| | - Sangdun Choi
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Jeung Yeop Shim
- Bio R&D Center, Noroo Holdings Co., Ltd, Suwon, 16229, Korea
| | - Sunghoon Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea.
| | - Tae Hyeon Yoo
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499, Korea.
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Laskar AA, Khan MA, Askari F, Younus H. Thymoquinone binds and activates human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase: Potential therapy for the mitigation of aldehyde toxicity and maintenance of oral health. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 103:99-110. [PMID: 28472683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.04.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase (hsALDH) is a very important anti-oxidant enzyme present in the saliva. It is involved in the detoxification of toxic aldehydes and maintenance of oral health. Reduced level of hsALDH activity is a risk factor for oral cancer development. Thymoquinone (TQ) has many pharmacological activities and health benefits. This study aimed to examine the activation of hsALDH by TQ. The effect of TQ on the activity and kinetics of hsALDH was studied. The binding of TQ with the enzyme was examined by different biophysical methods and molecular docking analysis. TQ enhanced the dehydrogenase activity of crude and purified hsALDH by 3.2 and 2.9 fold, respectively. The Km of the purified enzyme decreased and the Vmax increased. The esterase activity also increased by 1.2 fold. No significant change in the nucleophilicity of the catalytic cysteine residue was observed. TQ forms a strong complex with hsALDH without altering the secondary structures of the enzyme. It fits in the active site of ALDH3A1 close to Cys 243 and the other highly conserved amino acid residues which lead to enhancement of substrate binding affinity and catalytic efficiency of the enzyme. TQ is expected to give better protection from toxic aldehydes in the oral cavity and to reduce the risk of oral cancer development through the activation of hsALDH. Therefore, the addition of TQ in the diet and other oral formulations is expected to be beneficial for health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaj Ahmed Laskar
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Masood Alam Khan
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fizza Askari
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Hina Younus
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India.
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In vitro activity and stability of pure human salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 96:798-806. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.12.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Alam MF, Laskar AA, Choudhary HH, Younus H. Human Salivary Aldehyde Dehydrogenase: Purification, Kinetic Characterization and Effect of Ethanol, Hydrogen Peroxide and Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate on the Activity of the Enzyme. Cell Biochem Biophys 2016; 74:307-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s12013-016-0742-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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A bioluminescence assay for aldehyde dehydrogenase activity. Anal Biochem 2013; 434:226-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2012.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Montes Nieto R, García-Barrera T, Gómez-Ariza JL, López-Barea J. Environmental monitoring of Domingo Rubio stream (Huelva Estuary, SW Spain) by combining conventional biomarkers and proteomic analysis in Carcinus maenas. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2010; 158:401-408. [PMID: 19815320 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Revised: 07/31/2009] [Accepted: 09/01/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Element load, conventional biomarkers and altered protein expression profiles were studied in Carcinus maenas crabs, to assess contamination of "Domingo Rubio" stream, an aquatic ecosystem that receives pyritic metals, industrial contaminants, and pesticides. Lower antioxidative activities - glucose-6-phosphate and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenases, catalase - were found in parallel to higher levels of damaged biomolecules - malondialdehyde, oxidized glutathione -, due to oxidative lesions promoted by contaminants, as the increased levels of essential - Zn, Cu, Co - and nonessential - Cr, Ni, Cd - elements. Utility of Proteomics to assess environmental quality was confirmed, especially after considering the six proteins identified by de novo sequencing through capLC-muESI-ITMS/MS and homology search on databases. They include tripartite motif-containing protein 11 and ATF7 transcription factor (upregulated), plus CBR-NHR-218 nuclear hormone receptor, two components of the ABC transporters and aldehyde dehydrogenase (downregulated). These proteins could be used as novel potential biomarkers of the deleterious effects of pollutants present in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Montes Nieto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Córdoba, Severo Ochoa Building, Rabanales Campus, Highway A4 Km 396a, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
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Giebułtowicz J, Wolinowska R, Sztybor A, Pietrzak M, Wroczyński P, Wierzchowski J. Salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase: activity towards aromatic aldehydes and comparison with recombinant ALDH3A1. Molecules 2009; 14:2363-72. [PMID: 19633610 PMCID: PMC6254923 DOI: 10.3390/molecules14072363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of aromatic aldehydes was examined as substrates for salivary aldehyde dehydrogenase (sALDH) and the recombinant ALDH3A1. Para-substituted benzaldehydes, cinnamic aldehyde and 2-naphthaldehydes were found to be excellent substrates, and kinetic parameters for both salivary and recombinant ALDH were nearly identical. It was demonstrated that for the fluorogenic naphthaldehydes the only produced reaction product after incubation in saliva is the carboxylate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Giebułtowicz
- Department of Drugs Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, 1 Banacha Street, PL-02-097, Warsaw, Poland; E-mail: (J.G.)
| | - Renata Wolinowska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, 3 Oczki Street, PL-02-007, Warsaw, Poland; E-mail: (R.W.)
| | - Anna Sztybor
- Department of Biophysics, University of Warmia and Mazury, 4 Oczapowskiego St., PL-10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Monika Pietrzak
- Department of Biophysics, University of Warmia and Mazury, 4 Oczapowskiego St., PL-10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Piotr Wroczyński
- Department of Drugs Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, 1 Banacha Street, PL-02-097, Warsaw, Poland; E-mail: (J.G.)
| | - Jacek Wierzchowski
- Department of Biophysics, University of Warmia and Mazury, 4 Oczapowskiego St., PL-10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel. +48-89-523-3324; Fax: +48-89-523-3408
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