Inhibition of cereblon by fenofibrate ameliorates alcoholic liver disease by enhancing AMPK

Fenofibrate inhibits MOXD1 and PDZK1IP1 expression and improves lipid deposition and inflammation in mice with alcoholic fatty liver

AIMS

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) can develop into cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma but no specific drugs are available. Fenofibrate is therapeutically effective in ALD, however, the exact mechanism remains unknown. We explored the hub genes of ALD and the role of fenofibrate in ALD.

MAIN METHODS

The hub genes of ALD were screened by bioinformatics method, and their functional enrichment, signalling pathways, target genes and their correlation with immune microenvironment and pathogenic genes were analysed. We also analysed the binding affinity of fenofibrate to proteins of hub genes using molecular docking techniques, and the effects on hub gene expression, lipid deposition, oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver of National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) model mice. The regulatory effects of fenofibrate on MOXD1 and PDZK1P1 were investigated after gene silencing of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (Ppar-α).

KEY FINDINGS

Hub genes identified, including monooxygenase DBH-like 1 (MOXD1), PDZK1-interacting protein 1 (PDZK1IP1) and solute carrier 51 β (SLC51B), are highly predictive for ALD. Hepatic MOXD1 and PDZK1IP1 expression was elevated in patients with ALD and NIAAA model mice, with no significant difference in SLC51B expression between the groups. Fenofibrate binds tightly to MOXD1 and PDZK1IP1, inhibits their hepatic expression independently of PPAR-α signalling, and ameliorates lipid deposition, oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in NIAAA model mice.

SIGNIFICANCE

MOXD1 and PDZK1IP1 are key genes in ALD progression; fenofibrate improves liver damage in NIAAA model mice by downregulating their expression. Our findings provide insight for improving diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for ALD.

Small-molecule chemical probes for the potential therapeutic targets in alcoholic liver diseases

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) encompasses a range of conditions resulting from prolonged and excessive alcohol consumption, causing liver damage such as alcoholic fatty liver, inflammation, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Alcohol consumption contributes to millions of deaths each year. So far, the effective treatments for ALD are limited. To date, the most effective treatment for ALD is still prevention by avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and only few specialized medicines are in the market for the treatment of patients suffering from ALD. Small molecules targeting various pathways implicated in ALD pathogenesis can potentially be used for effective therapeutics development. In this review, we provide a concise overview of the latest research findings on potential therapeutic targets, specifically emphasizing small-molecule interventions for the treatment and prevention of ALD.

Polystyrene-microplastics and DEHP co-exposure induced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest and necroptosis of ovarian granulosa cells in mice by promoting ROS production

The joint pollution of microplastics (MPs) and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalic acid (DEHP) often occurs, and consequently poses a serious threat to human and animal health, which has attracted widespread attention. However, the damage to the female mammalian ovary caused by the single exposure and co-exposure of MPs and DEHP and its specific mechanisms are not clear. Here, we established mouse models of single and co-exposures to polystyrene-microplastics (PS-MPs) and DEHP. The results showed that exposed to 100 mg/L PS-MPs and 200 mg/kg DEHP for 35 days destroyed the ovarian granulosa cell layer of mice, leading to follicular fragmentation and atresia. We cultured ovary granulosa cells in vitro to perform further mechanism studies and found that PS-MPs and DEHP had synergistic effects. Both of them promoted the excessive production of ROS and induced oxidative stress by triggering the CNR1/CRBN/YY1/CYP2E1 signaling axis, which in turn caused DNA oxidative damage. Additionally, we provided compelling evidence that oxidative stress mediated-hippo signaling pathway played a critical role in PS-MPs and DEHP caused ovary damage, resulting in ovarian granulosa cell cycle arrest and necroptosis. Using oxidative stress inhibitor AM251 or DAS could reverse these changes markedly and alleviate the reproductive toxicity caused by PS-MPs and DEHP, effectively. Overall, these results demonstrated that co-exposure of PS-MPs and DEHP adversely affected the integrity of ovary granulosa cell layer, resulting in DNA oxidative damage, cell cycle arrest and increased necroptosis of mouse ovarian granulosa cells by inducing oxidative stress. Our study shed new light on the co-exposure toxicity of PS-MPs and DEHP, provided novel insights for the reproductive toxicity of PS-MPs combined exposure with DEHP in female animals from a new free radical generation pathway perspective.

Thalidomide Attenuates Mast Cell Activation by Upregulating SHP-1 Signaling and Interfering with the Action of CRBN

Allergy is a chronic inflammatory disease, and its incidence has increased worldwide in recent years. Thalidomide, which was initially used as an anti-emetic drug but was withdrawn due to its teratogenic effects, is now used to treat blood cancers. Although the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of thalidomide have been reported, little is known about its influence on the mast cell-mediated allergic reaction. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-allergic activity of thalidomide and the underlying mechanism using mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) and passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) mouse models. Thalidomide markedly decreased the degranulation and release of lipid mediators and cytokines in IgE/Ag-stimulated BMMCs, with concurrent inhibition of FcεRI-mediated positive signaling pathways including Syk and activation of negative signaling pathways including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and SH2 tyrosine phosphatase-1 (SHP-1). The knockdown of AMPK or SHP-1 with specific siRNA diminished the inhibitory effects of thalidomide on BMMC activation. By contrast, the knockdown of cereblon (CRBN), which is the primary target protein of thalidomide, augmented the effects of thalidomide. Thalidomide reduced the interactions of CRBN with Syk and AMPK promoted by FcεRI crosslinking, thereby relieving the suppression of AMPK signaling and suppressing Syk signaling. Furthermore, oral thalidomide treatment suppressed the PCA reaction in mice. In conclusion, thalidomide suppresses FcεRI-mediated mast cell activation by activating the AMPK and SHP-1 pathways and antagonizing the action of CRBN, indicating that it is a potential anti-allergic agent.

PPAR agonists attenuate lenalidomide's anti-myeloma activity in vitro and in vivo

Many patients with multiple myeloma (MM) have comorbidities and are treated with PPAR agonists. Immunomodulatory agents (IMiDs) are the cornerstones for MM therapy. Currently, little is known about how co-administration of PPAR agonists impacts lenalidomide treatment in patients with MM. Here, we determined the effects of PPAR agonists on anti-myeloma activities of lenalidomide in vitro and in a myeloma xenograft mouse model. Genetic overexpression and CRISPR/cas9 knockout experiments were performed to determine the role of CRBN in the PPAR-mediated pathway. A retrospective cohort study was performed to determine the correlation of PPAR expression with the outcomes of patients with MM. PPAR agonists down-regulated CRBN expression and reduced the anti-myeloma efficacy of lenalidomide in vitro and in vivo. Co-treatment with PPAR antagonists increased CRBN expression and improved sensitivity to lenalidomide. PPAR expression was higher in bone marrow cells of patients with newly diagnosed MM than in normal control bone marrow samples. High PPAR expression was correlated with poor clinical outcomes. Our study provides the first evidence that PPARs transcriptionally regulate CRBN and that drug-drug interactions between PPAR agonists and IMiDs may impact myeloma treatment outcomes.

Cereblon: promise and challenges for combating human diseases

Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate recognition protein in the E3-ligase ubiquitin complex. The binding target of CRBN varies according to tissues and cells, and the protein regulates various biological functions by regulating tissue-specific targets. As new endogenous targets of CRBN have been identified over the past decade, the physiological and pathological functions of CRBN and its potential as a therapeutic target in various diseases have greatly expanded. For this purpose, in this review article, we introduce the basic principle of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the regulation of physiological/pathological functions related to the endogenous substrate of CRBN, and the discovery of immunomodulatory imide drug-mediated neo-substrates of CRBN. In addition, the development of CRBN-based proteolysis-targeting chimeras, which has been actively researched recently, and strategies for developing therapeutic agents using them are introduced. These recent updates on CRBN will be useful in the establishment of strategies for disease treatment and utilization of CRBNs in biomedical engineering and clinical medicine.

Gluconeogenic signals regulate hepcidin gene expression via a CRBN-KLF15 axis

Hepcidin (HAMP) is synthesized in the liver. It is a key iron-regulatory hormone that controls systemic iron homeostasis. Cereblon (CRBN) and Kruppel-like factor 15 (KLF15) are known to regulate diverse physiological functions. In this study, we investigated the role of CRBN on hepatic hepcidin gene expression and production under gluconeogenic stimuli. Fasted mice as well as forskolin (FSK)- and glucagon (GLU)-treated mice had reduced serum iron levels but increased expression levels of hepatic Crbn and Klf15 and hepcidin secretion. MicroRNA (miRNA) expression analysis of fasted and Ad-Crbn-infected mice revealed significant reduction of microRNA-639 (miR-639). Hepatic overexpression of Crbn elevated hepcidin expression and production along with Klf15 gene expression, whereas knockdown of Crbn and Klf15 markedly decreased FSK- and fasting-mediated induction of hepcidin gene expression and its biosynthesis in mouse livers and primary hepatocytes. Moreover, expression of KLF15 significantly increased the activity of hepcidin reporter gene. It was exclusively dependent on the KLF15-binding site identified within the hepcidin gene promoter. Overall, this study demonstrates that CRBN and KLF15 are novel mediators of gluconeogenic signal-induced hepcidin gene expression and production. Thus, CRBN and KLF15 might be novel potential therapeutic targets to intervene metabolic dysfunction.

Ablation of CRBN induces loss of type I collagen and SCH in mouse skin by fibroblast senescence via the p38 MAPK pathway

Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate receptor of the cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase (CRL) complex that mediates the ubiquitination of several substrates. In this study, CRBN knockout (KO) mice exhibited decreased levels of stratum corneum hydration (SCH) and collagen I expression with an elevated protein level of matrix metalloprotease 1 (MMP1). The absence of cereblon in the skin of CRBN KO mice mimics the damage caused by narrowband ultraviolet B (NB-UVB). The primary CRBN deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) undergo G2/M-arrested premature senescence via protein signaling of p38 MAPK and its dependent p53/p21pathway. The absence of CRBN induced the markers of cellular senescence, such as the senescence-associated heterochromatin foci (SAHF), SA-β-Gal staining, and p21 upregulation while the ectopic expression of CRBN reversed the phenotypes of SA-β-Gal staining and p21 upregulation. Reversion of the decreased protein level of collagen I was demonstrated after the reintroduction of the CRBN gene back into CRBN KO MEFs, validating the promising role of CRBN as a potential regulator for the function of the skin barrier and its cellular homeostasis.

The hepato-protective effect of eupatilin on an alcoholic liver disease model of rats

ABSTRACT Eupatilin is known to possess anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidative, and anti-inflammatory properties. We report here that eupatilin has a protective effect on the ethanol-induced injury in rats. Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into 6 groups: control, vehicle, silymarin, eupatilin 10 mg/kg, eupatilin 30 mg/kg, and eupatilin 100 mg/kg. Plasma levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were analyzed to determine the extent of liver damage. Total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG) were analyzed to determine the level of liver steatosis. Malondialdehyde level, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and glutathione (GSH) level were analyzed to determine the extent of oxidative stress. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β were quantified to verify the degree of inflammation. Based on our findings, chronic alcohol treatment significantly changed the serum indexes and liver indicators of the model rats, which were significantly improved by eupatilin treatment. Rats in the eupatilin-treatment group showed reduced levels of AST, ALT, TG, TC, TNF-α, and IL-1β, increased SOD activity and GSH levels, and improved overall physiology compared to the alcoholic liver disease model rats. H&E staining also verified the eupatilin-mediated improvement in liver injury. In conclusion, eupatilin inhibits alcohol-induced liver injury via its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

Induction of SIRT1 by melatonin improves alcohol-mediated oxidative liver injury by disrupting the CRBN-YY1-CYP2E1 signaling pathway

Alcoholic liver disease is the most prevalent chronic liver disease. Melatonin is known to control many vital processes. Here, we explored a novel molecular mechanism by which melatonin-induced SIRT1 signaling protects against alcohol-mediated oxidative stress and liver injury. Gene expression profiles and metabolic changes were measured in liver specimens of mice and human subjects. Expression levels of Cb1r, Crbn, Btg2, Yy1, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and Cyp2e1 were significantly enhanced in chronic alcohol-challenged mice and human subjects. Levels of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), hepatic CYP2E1 protein, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were elevated in alcohol-fed WT mice but not in Cb1r antagonist-treated, Crbn null, or Yy1-silenced mice. Importantly, alcohol-induced Yy1 and Cyp2e1 expression, ROS amount, and liver injury were markedly diminished by melatonin treatment and the transduction of Sirt1 in mice, whereas this phenomenon was prominently ablated by silencing of Sirt1. Notably, SIRT1 physically interacted with YY1 and attenuated YY1 occupancy on the Cyp2e1 gene promoter. Melatonin-SIRT1 signaling ameliorates alcohol-induced oxidative liver injury by disrupting the CRBN-YY1-CYP2E1 signaling pathway. The manipulation of CRBN-YY1-CYP2E1 signaling network by the melatonin-SIRT1 pathway highlights a novel entry point for treating alcoholic liver disease.

Dioscin alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease through adjusting lipid metabolism via SIRT1/AMPK signaling pathway

Dioscin, one natural product, has active effect against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in our previous work. However, the pharmacological data are insufficient and the mechanisms have not been reported. Thus, this study aims to comprehensively investigate the effects and molecular mechanisms of dioscin against NAFLD. The primary cultured hepatocytes, AML-12 and HepG-2 cells were treated with palmic acid (PA) after dioscin treatment. The mice and rats were induced by high fat diet to establish the in vivo models of NAFLD. Dioscin obviously alleviated liver lipid accumulation symptoms and improved the levels of serum and hepatic biochemical parameters in vitro and in vivo. Further investigations revealed that dioscin significantly attenuated lipid metabolism via adjusting SIRT1/AMPK signal pathway to regulate the expression levels of SREBP-1c, CPT, FAS, SCD, FoxO1 and ATGL. In addition, suppression of SIRT1 by Nicotinamide or abrogation of AMPK by Compound C eliminated the inhibitory effects of dioscin on lipid metabolism. Therefore, our findings further demonstrated that dioscin markedly prevented NAFLD through adjusting lipid metabolism via SIRT1/AMPK signal pathway, which should be developed as a new candidate for NAFLD.

Cereblon: A Protein Crucial to the Multiple Functions of Immunomodulatory Drugs as well as Cell Metabolism and Disease Generation

It is well known that cereblon is a key protein in autosomal recessive nonsyndromic mental retardation. Studies have reported that it has an intermediary role in helping immunomodulatory drugs perform their immunomodulatory and tumoricidal effects. In addition, cereblon also regulates the expression, assembly, and activities of other special proteins related to cell proliferation and metabolism, resulting in the occurrence and development of metabolic diseases. This review details the multiple functions of cereblon and the underlying mechanisms. We also put forward some unsolved problems, including the intrinsic mechanism of cereblon function and the possible regulatory mechanisms of its expression.

Melatonin ameliorates alcohol-induced bile acid synthesis by enhancing miR-497 expression

Alcoholic liver disease is a major cause of chronic liver disease worldwide, and cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) is involved in a diverse metabolic diseases. B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) and yin yang 1 (YY1) are a potent regulator of biological conditions. Melatonin plays a crucial role in regulating diverse physiological functions and metabolic homeostasis. MicroRNAs are key regulators of various biological processes. Herein, we demonstrate that melatonin improves bile acid synthesis in the liver of alcohol-fed mice by controlling miR-497 expression. The level of bile acid and the expression of Cb1r, Btg2, Yy1, and bile acid synthetic enzymes were significantly elevated in the livers of Lieber-DeCarli alcohol-fed mice. The overexpression of Btg2 enhanced Yy1 gene expression and bile acid production, whereas disrupting the CB1R-BTG2-YY1 cascade protected against the bile acid synthesis caused by alcohol challenge. We identified an alcohol-mediated YY1 binding site on the cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1) gene promoter using promoter deletion analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. Notably, melatonin attenuated the alcohol-stimulated induction of Btg2, Yy1 mRNA levels and bile acid production by promoting miR-497. Overexpression of a miR-497 mimic dramatically diminished the increase of Btg2 and Yy1 gene expression as well as bile acid production by alcohol, whereas this phenomenon was reversed by miR-497 inhibitor. These results demonstrate that the upregulation of miR-497 by melatonin represses alcohol-induced bile acid synthesis by attenuating the BTG2-YY1 signaling pathway. The melatonin-miR497 signaling network may provide novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of hepatic metabolic dysfunction caused by the alcohol-dependent pathway.

Rg1 Attenuates alcoholic hepatic damage through regulating AMP-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 signal pathways

Rg1 has shown multiple pharmacological activities and been considered to be evaluated for hepatic protective activity, as Rg1 could modulate different pathways in various diseases. Herein we assessed its effect and potential mechanism in a newly modified ethanol model. C57BL/6 mice were fed with Lieber-DeCarli liquid diet containing ethanol or isocaloric maltose dextrin as control diet with or without Rg1. Meanwhile, bicyclol was treated as positive drug to compare the efficacy of Rg1 against alcoholic hepatotoxicity. According to our data, Rg1 indeed improved the survival rate and lowered the abnormal high levels of serum parameters. H&E and Oil Red O staining indicated that the condition of liver damage was mitigated by Rg1 administration. Furthermore, AMPK and Nrf2 pathways were all modulated at both RNA and protein levels. In accordance with these findings, Rg1 effectively protected against alcoholic liver injury, possibly by modulating metabolism, suppressing oxidative stress, and enhancing oxidant defense systems of Nrf2 pathway. In vitro, Rg1 has no cell toxicity and promotes Nrf2 translocate into nuclear. In summary, we demonstrate that Rg1 is a potent activator of Nrf2 pathway, and could therefore be applied for prevention of hepatic damage.

Cereblon in health and disease

Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate receptor of the E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that has been linked to autosomal recessive non-syndromic mental retardation. Several key findings suggest diverse roles of CRBN, including its regulation of the large-conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BKCa) channels, regulation of thalidomide-binding proteins, and mediation of lenalidomide treatment in multiple myeloma. Recent studies also indicate that CRBN is involved in energy metabolism and negatively regulates AMP-activated protein kinase signaling. Mice with genetic depletion of CRBN are resistant to various stress conditions including a high-fat diet, endoplasmic reticulum stress, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and alcohol-related liver damage. In this review, we discuss the various roles of CRBN in human health and disease and suggest avenues for further research to enhance our basic knowledge and clinical application of CRBN.

Betulin alleviated ethanol-induced alcoholic liver injury via SIRT1/AMPK signaling pathway

The present study was conducted to investigate the protective effect of betulin, a triterpene from the bark of Betula platyphylla Suk, against ethanol-induced alcoholic liver injury and its possible underlying mechanisms. In vitro, human hepatic stellate cell line, LX-2 cells were treated with betulin (6.25, 12.5 and 25 μM) prior to ethanol (50mM) for 24h. Cell viability was analyzed by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay, protein expressions were assessed by Western blot. In vivo, we induced alcoholic liver injury in male C57BL/6 mice, placing them on Lieber-DeCarli ethanol-containing diets for 10 days and then administering a single dose of ethanol (5 g/kg body weight) via gavage. Betulin (20 and 50mg/kg) were given by gavage every day. In vitro results showed that betulin effectively decreased LX-2 cell viability, attenuated collagen-I, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) levels, activated liver kinase B-1 (LKB1) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation. Betulin suppressed the expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), and genetic deletion of AMPK blocked the effect of betulin on SREBP-1 in ethanol treated LX-2 cells. In vivo, betulin attenuated the increases in serum aminotransferase and triglyceride levels in the mice fed with chronic-binge ethanol, while significantly inhibited SREBP-1 expression and activated LKB1-AMPK phosphorylation. Additionally, betulin enhanced the sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression mediated by ethanol. Taken together, betulin alleviates alcoholic liver injury possibly through blocking the regulation of SREBP-1 on fatty acid synthesis and activating SIRT1-LKB1-AMPK signaling pathway.