Exercise-induced GLUT4 transcription via inactivation of HDAC4/5 in mouse skeletal muscle in an AMPKα2-dependent manner

Aerobic plus resistance exercise attenuates skeletal muscle atrophy induced by dexamethasone through the HDAC4/FoxO3a pathway

This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms by which physical exercise mitigates muscle atrophy induced by Dexamethasone (Dex). A muscle atrophy model was established in the mouse C2C12 cell line and 8-week-old mice treated with Dex, with subsequent verification of phenotype and atrogene expression. The potential benefits of combined aerobic and resistance exercise in mitigating muscle atrophy were then examined. To elucidate the involvement of Histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) in the protective effects of exercise against muscle loss, a combination of RT-PCR, Western blotting, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence staining techniques were employed. The upregulation of HDAC4 was observed following Dex-induced muscle atrophy in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of HDAC4 in C2C12 cells resulted in an increase in myotube diameter and fusion index, along with a decrease in the expression of Atrogin-1 and MuRF1. Treatment with Tasquinimod, an HDAC4 inhibitor, effectively prevented muscle wasting and dysfunction in mice induced by Dex. After a 6-week exercise intervention, the Dex-Exercise group exhibited significant improvements in body fat level, hyperinsulinemia, muscle mass and function in comparison to the Dex-Sedentary group. Mechanistically, we discovered that HDAC4 bound to and deacetylated Forkhead box protein O 3a (FoxO3a) within the nucleus, leading to decreased phosphorylation of FoxO3a at Ser 253. This interaction subsequently facilitated the expression of downstream atrogene Atrogin-1 and MuRF1, resulting in muscle atrophy. Conversely, exercise was found to potentially mitigate muscle atrophy by inhibiting the HDAC4/FoxO3a pathway. These findings suggest that HDAC4 may be a potential therapeutic target for exercise to combat Dex-induced muscle atrophy.

Leptin drives glucose metabolism to promote cardiac protection via OPA1-mediated HDAC5 translocation and Glut4 transcription

Metabolic reprogramming, the shifting from fatty acid oxidation to glucose utilization, improves cardiac function as heart failure (HF) progresses. Leptin plays an essential role in regulating glucose metabolism. However, the crosstalk between leptin and metabolic reprogramming is poorly understood. We tested the hypothesis that leptin improves cardiac function after myocardial infarction via enhancing glucose metabolism. In the isoproterenol (ISO)-induced heart failure model in vitro, H9c2 cell apoptosis was assessed by the TUNEL and Annexin V/PI staining assay. Leptin-mediated mitochondrial fusion was performed via TEM, and glucose oxidation was explored, as well as the ECAR, OCR, and protein expression of the vital metabolic enzymes. By blocking OPA1 expression or HDAC5 inhibition, the mitochondrial dynamic and glucose metabolic were detected to evaluate the role of OPA1 and HDAC5 in leptin-stimulated glucose metabolism. In the mouse model of HF in vivo, intraperitoneal leptin administration appreciably increased glucose oxidation and preserved cardiac function 56 days after coronary artery ligation. In vitro, we identified the OPA1-dependent HDAC5 nucleus export as a crucial process in boosting glucose utilization by activating MEF2 to upregulate Glut4 expression using the RNA interference technique in H9c2 cells. In vivo, leptin promotes glucose utilization and confers heart functional and survival benefits in chronic ischemic HF. The current study provided a novel insight into the role of leptin in metabolic reprogramming and revealed potential therapeutic targets for chronic HF.

Role of the histone deacetylase family in lipid metabolism: Structural specificity and functional diversity

Lipids play crucial roles in signal transduction. Lipid metabolism is associated with several transcriptional regulators, including peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase. In recent years, increasing evidence has suggested that members of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) family play key roles in lipid metabolism. However, the mechanisms by which each member of this family regulates lipid metabolism remain unclear. This review discusses the latest research on the roles played by HDACs in fat metabolism. The role of HDACs in obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis has also been discussed. In addition, the interaction of HDACs with the gut microbiome and circadian rhythm has been reviewed, and the future development trend in HDACs has been predicted, which may potentiate therapeutic application of targeted HDACs in related metabolic diseases.

The epigenetic mechanism of metabolic risk in bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a complex and severe mental illness that causes significant suffering to patients. In addition to the burden of depressive and manic symptoms, patients with BD are at an increased risk for metabolic syndrome (MetS). MetS includes factors associated with an increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), which may increase the mortality rate of patients with BD. Several studies have suggested a link between BD and MetS, which may be explained at an epigenetic level. We have focused on epigenetic mechanisms to review the causes of metabolic risk in BD.

Elevated meteorin-like protein from high-intensity interval training improves heart function via AMPK/HDAC4 pathway

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been found to be more effective in relieving heart failure (HF) symptoms, than moderate-intensity continuous aerobic training (MICT). Additionally, higher meteorin-like protein (Metrnl) levels are seen after HIIT versus MICT. We investigated whether Metrnl contributed to post-HF cardiac functional improvements, and the signaling pathways involved. 50 HF patients underwent MICT, and another 50, HIIT, which was followed by cardiac function and serum Metrnl measurements. Metrnl was also measured in both blood and skeletal muscle samples of mice with transverse aortic constriction-induced HF after undergoing HIIT. Afterward, shRNA-containing adenovectors were injected into mice, yielding five groups: control, HF, HF + HIIT + scrambled shRNA, HF + HIIT + shMetrnl, and HF + Metrnl (HF + exogenous Metrnl). Mass spectrometry identified specific signaling pathways associated with increased Metrnl, which was confirmed with biochemical analyses. Glucose metabolism and mitochondrial functioning were evaluated in cardiomyocytes from the five groups. Both HF patients and mice had higher circulating Metrnl levels post-HIIT. Metrnl activated AMPK in cardiomyocytes, subsequently increasing histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) phosphorylation, leading to its cytosolic sequestration and inactivation via binding with chaperone protein 14-3-3. HDAC4 inactivation removed its repression on glucose transporter type 4, which, along with increased mitochondrial complex I-V expression, yielded improved aerobic glucose respiration and alleviation of mitochondrial dysfunction. All these changes ultimately result in improved post-HF cardiac functioning. HIIT increased skeletal muscle Metrnl production, which then operated on HF hearts to alleviate their functional defects, via increasing aerobic glucose metabolism through AMPK-HDAC4 signaling.

Effects of cannabidiol on AMPKα2 /HIF-1α/BNIP3/NIX signaling pathway in skeletal muscle injury

Cannabidiol: (CBD) is a non-psychoactive natural active ingredient from cannabis plant, which has many pharmacological effects, including neuroprotection, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-skeletal muscle injury. However, the mechanism of its effect on skeletal muscle injury still needs further research. In order to seek a scientifically effective way to combat skeletal muscle injury during exercise, we used healthy SD rats to establish an exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury model by treadmill training, and systematically investigated the effects and mechanisms of CBD, a natural compound in the traditional Chinese medicine Cannabis sativa L., on combating skeletal muscle injury during exercise. CBD effectively improved the fracture of skeletal muscle tissue and reduced the degree of inflammatory cell infiltration. Biochemical indexes such as CK, T, Cor, LDH, SOD, MDA, and GSH-Px in serum of rats returned to normal. Combining transcriptome and network analysis results, CBD may play a protective role in exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury through HIF-1 signaling pathway. The experimental results implied that CBD could down-regulate the expression of IL-6, NF-κB, TNF-α, Keap1, AMPKα2, HIF-1α, BNIP3 and NIX, and raised the protein expression of IL-10, Nrf2 and HO-1. These results indicate that the protective effect of CBD on exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury may be related to the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation, thus inhibiting skeletal muscle injury through AMPKα2/HIF-1α/BNIP3/NIX signal pathways.

Roles of Histone Deacetylase 4 in the Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes

Histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4), a class IIa HDAC, has gained attention as a potential therapeutic target in treating inflammatory and metabolic processes based on its essential role in various biological pathways by deacetylating non-histone proteins, including transcription factors. The activity of HDAC4 is regulated at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels. The functions of HDAC4 are tissue-dependent in response to endogenous and exogenous factors and their substrates. In particular, the association of HDAC4 with non-histone targets, including transcription factors, such as myocyte enhancer factor 2, hypoxia-inducible factor, signal transducer and activator of transcription 1, and forkhead box proteins, play a crucial role in regulating inflammatory and metabolic processes. This review summarizes the regulatory modes of HDAC4 activity and its functions in inflammation, insulin signaling and glucose metabolism, and cardiac muscle development.

The epigenetic regulatory effect of histone acetylation and deacetylation on skeletal muscle metabolism-a review

Skeletal muscles, the largest organ responsible for energy metabolism in most mammals, play a vital role in maintaining the body's homeostasis. Epigenetic modification, specifically histone acetylation, serves as a crucial regulatory mechanism influencing the physiological processes and metabolic patterns within skeletal muscle metabolism. The intricate process of histone acetylation modification involves coordinated control of histone acetyltransferase and deacetylase levels, dynamically modulating histone acetylation levels, and precisely regulating the expression of genes associated with skeletal muscle metabolism. Consequently, this comprehensive review aims to elucidate the epigenetic regulatory impact of histone acetylation modification on skeletal muscle metabolism, providing invaluable insights into the intricate molecular mechanisms governing epigenetic modifications in skeletal muscle metabolism.

One episode of low intensity aerobic exercise prior to systemic AAV9 administration augments transgene delivery to the heart and skeletal muscle

INTRODUCTION

The promising potential of adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene delivery strategies to treat genetic disorders continues to grow with an additional three AAV-based therapies recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration and dozens of others currently under evaluation in clinical trials. With these developments, it has become increasingly apparent that the high doses currently needed for efficacy carry risks of toxicity and entail enormous manufacturing costs, especially for clinical grade products. Strategies to increase the therapeutic efficacy of AAV-mediated gene delivery and reduce the minimal effective dose would have a substantial impact on this field. We hypothesized that an exercise-induced redistribution of tissue perfusion in the body to favor specific target organs via acute aerobic exercise prior to systemic intravenous (IV) AAV administration could increase efficacy.

BACKGROUND

Aerobic exercise triggers an array of downstream physiological effects including increased perfusion of heart and skeletal muscle, which we expected could enhance AAV transduction. Prior preclinical studies have shown promising results for a gene therapy approach to treat Barth syndrome (BTHS), a rare monogenic cardioskeletal myopathy, and clinical studies have shown the benefit of low intensity exercise in these patients, making this a suitable disease in which to test the ability of aerobic exercise to enhance AAV transduction.

METHODS

Wild-type (WT) and BTHS mice were either systemically administered AAV9 or completed one episode of low intensity treadmill exercise immediately prior to systemic administration of AAV9.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that a single episode of acute low intensity aerobic exercise immediately prior to IV AAV9 administration improves marker transgene delivery in WT mice as compared to mice injected without the exercise pre-treatment. In BTHS mice, prior exercise improved transgene delivery and additionally increased improvement in mitochondrial gene transcription levels and mitochondrial function in the heart and gastrocnemius muscles as compared to mice treated without exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that one episode of acute low intensity aerobic exercise improves AAV9 transduction of heart and skeletal muscle. This low-risk, cost effective intervention could be implemented in clinical trials of individuals with inherited cardioskeletal disease as a potential means of improving patient safety for human gene therapy.

Glucose transporter 4: Insulin response mastermind, glycolysis catalyst and treatment direction for cancer progression

The glucose transporter family (GLUT) consists of fourteen members. It is responsible for glucose homeostasis and glucose transport from the extracellular space to the cell cytoplasm to further cascade catalysis. GLUT proteins are encoded by the solute carrier family 2 (SLC2) genes and are members of the major facilitator superfamily of membrane transporters. Moreover, different GLUTs also have their transporter kinetics and distribution, so each GLUT member has its uniqueness and importance to play essential roles in human physiology. Evidence from many studies in the field of diabetes showed that GLUT4 travels between the plasma membrane and intracellular vesicles (GLUT4-storage vesicles, GSVs) and that the PI3K/Akt pathway regulates this activity in an insulin-dependent manner or by the AMPK pathway in response to muscle contraction. Moreover, some published results also pointed out that GLUT4 mediates insulin-dependent glucose uptake. Thus, dysfunction of GLUT4 can induce insulin resistance, metabolic reprogramming in diverse chronic diseases, inflammation, and cancer. In addition to the relationship between GLUT4 and insulin response, recent studies also referred to the potential upstream transcription factors that can bind to the promoter region of GLUT4 to regulating downstream signals. Combined all of the evidence, we conclude that GLUT4 has shown valuable unknown functions and is of clinical significance in cancers, which deserves our in-depth discussion and design compounds by structure basis to achieve therapeutic effects. Thus, we intend to write up a most updated review manuscript to include the most recent and critical research findings elucidating how and why GLUT4 plays an essential role in carcinogenesis, which may have broad interests and impacts on this field.

Histone deacetylase functions and therapeutic implications for adult skeletal muscle metabolism

Skeletal muscle is a highly adaptive organ that sustains continuous metabolic changes in response to different functional demands. Healthy skeletal muscle can adjust fuel utilization to the intensity of muscle activity, the availability of nutrients and the intrinsic characteristics of muscle fibers. This property is defined as metabolic flexibility. Importantly, impaired metabolic flexibility has been associated with, and likely contributes to the onset and progression of numerous pathologies, including sarcopenia and type 2 diabetes. Numerous studies involving genetic and pharmacological manipulations of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in vitro and in vivo have elucidated their multiple functions in regulating adult skeletal muscle metabolism and adaptation. Here, we briefly review HDAC classification and skeletal muscle metabolism in physiological conditions and upon metabolic stimuli. We then discuss HDAC functions in regulating skeletal muscle metabolism at baseline and following exercise. Finally, we give an overview of the literature regarding the activity of HDACs in skeletal muscle aging and their potential as therapeutic targets for the treatment of insulin resistance.

HDAC4 in cancer: A multitasking platform to drive not only epigenetic modifications

Controlling access to genomic information and maintaining its stability are key aspects of cell life. Histone acetylation is a reversible epigenetic modification that allows access to DNA and the assembly of protein complexes that regulate mainly transcription but also other activities. Enzymes known as histone deacetylases (HDACs) are involved in the removal of the acetyl-group or in some cases of small hydrophobic moieties from histones but also from the non-histone substrate. The main achievement of HDACs on histones is to repress transcription and promote the formation of more compact chromatin. There are 18 different HDACs encoded in the human genome. Here we will discuss HDAC4, a member of the class IIa family, and its possible contribution to cancer development.

Histone deacetylase 4 and 5 translocation elicited by microsecond pulsed electric field exposure is mediated by kinase activity

Electroporation-based technologies using microsecond pulsed electric field (µsPEF) exposures are established as laboratory and clinical tools that permeabilize cell membranes. We demonstrate a µsPEF bioeffect on nucleocytoplasmic import and export of enzymes that regulate genetic expression, histone deacetylases (HDAC) -4 and -5. Their μsPEF-induced nucleocytoplasmic transport depends on presence and absence of extracellular calcium ions (Ca2+) for both MCF7 and CHO-K1 cells. Exposure to 1, 10, 30 and 50 consecutive square wave pulses at 1 Hz and of 100 µs duration with 1.45 kV/cm magnitude leads to translocation of endogenous HDAC4 and HDAC5. We posit that by eliciting a rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, a signaling pathway involving kinases, such as Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), is activated. This cascade causes nuclear export and import of HDAC4 and HDAC5. The potential of µsPEF exposures to control nucleocytoplasmic transport unlocks future opportunities in epigenetic modification.

Exercise improves high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorder by promoting HDAC5 degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome system in skeletal muscle

Histone deacetylase 4/5 are essential for regulating metabolic gene expression, AMPKα2 regulates HDAC4/5 activity and the expression of MuRF1 during exercise. In this study, we used wild type and AMPKα2-/- mice to explore the potential regulatory relationship between AMPKα2 and HDAC4/5 expression during exercise. Firstly, we fed C57BL/6J mice with high-fat diet for eight-week to assess the effects of high-fat diet on skeletal muscle metabolism and HDAC4/5 expression. We then performed a six-week treadmill exercise on both wild type and AMPKα2-/- mice. After exercise, the expressions of HDAC4/5 were examined in both gastrocnemius and soleus. The citrate synthase activity and proteins involved in skeletal muscle oxidative process were assessed. To determine the relationship of HDAC4/5 and skeletal muscle oxidative capacity, citrate synthase activity was assessed after silencing HDAC4/5. Moreover, HDAC5 ubiquitination and the association of MuRF1 to HDAC5 were also investigated. Our results showed that six-week exercise increased the skeletal muscle oxidative capacity and decreased HDAC4/5 expression only in soleus. HDAC5 silencing increased C2C12 cells oxidative capacity. Proteasome inhibition by MG132 abolished exercise-induced HDAC5 degradation mediated by MuRF1-ubiquitin-proteasome system. However, the UPS did not dominantly account for exercise-induced HDAC4 degradation. Exercise up-regulated MuRF1-HDAC5 association in wild type mice but not in AMPKα2-/- mice. Our results revealed that six-week exercise increased the skeletal muscle oxidative capacity and promoted HDAC5 degradation in soleus through the UPS, MuRF1 mediated HDAC5 ubiquitination. Although AMPKα2 played partial role in regulating MuRF1 expression and HDAC5 ubiquitination, exercise-induced HDAC5 degradation did not fully depend on AMPKα2.

Combination of Aerobic Training and Cocoa Flavanols as Effective Therapies to Reduce Metabolic and Inflammatory Disruptions in Insulin-Resistant Rats: The Exercise, Cocoa, and Diabetes Study

We aimed to investigate the combined effects of aerobic exercise (EXE) and cocoa flavanol (COCOA) supplementation on performance, metabolic parameters, and inflammatory and lipid profiles in obese insulin-resistant rats. Therefore, 32 male Wistar rats (230-250 g) were fed a high-fat diet and a fructose-rich beverage for 30 days to induce insulin resistance. Next, the rats were randomized into four groups, orally administered placebo solution or COCOA supplementation (45 mg·kg-1), and either remained sedentary or were subjected to EXE on a treadmill at 60% peak velocity for 30 min, for 8 weeks. Blood samples and peripheral tissues were collected and processed to analyze metabolic and inflammatory parameters, lipid profiles, and morphological parameters. Supplementation with COCOA and EXE improved physical performance and attenuated body mass gain, adipose index, and adipocyte area. When analyzed as individual interventions, supplementation with COCOA and EXE improved glucose intolerance and the lipid profile reduced the concentrations of leptin, glucose, and insulin, and reduced homeostasis assessment index (all effects were p < .001 for both interventions), while ameliorated some inflammatory mediators in examined tissues. In skeletal muscles, both COCOA supplementation and EXE increased the expression of glucose transporter (p < .001 and p < .001), and combined intervention showed additive effects (p < .001 vs. COCOA alone or EXE alone). Thus, combining COCOA with EXE represents an effective nonpharmacological strategy to treat insulin resistance; it could prevent Type 2 diabetes mellitus by improving physical performance, glucose metabolism, neuroendocrine control, and lipid and inflammatory mediators in the liver, pancreas, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle in obese male insulin-resistant rats.

Transcription Factor Movement and Exercise-Induced Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Human Skeletal Muscle: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

In response to exercise, the oxidative capacity of mitochondria within skeletal muscle increases through the coordinated expression of mitochondrial proteins in a process termed mitochondrial biogenesis. Controlling the expression of mitochondrial proteins are transcription factors-a group of proteins that regulate messenger RNA transcription from DNA in the nucleus and mitochondria. To fulfil other functions or to limit gene expression, transcription factors are often localised away from DNA to different subcellular compartments and undergo rapid movement or accumulation only when required. Although many transcription factors involved in exercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis have been identified, numerous conflicting findings and gaps exist within our knowledge of their subcellular movement. This review aims to summarise and provide a critical analysis of the published literature regarding the exercise-induced movement of transcription factors involved in mitochondria biogenesis in skeletal muscle.

Differential Expression of Genes Associated with Chromatin Modifications in Skeletal Muscle during Aerobic Training Program

Introduction: Skeletal muscle plasticity in exercise can be modulated by epigenomic events such as gene silencing, histone modifications and DNA methylation. In this context, our objective was to analyze the expression of genes associated with chromatin modifications in human muscle biopsies of vastus lateralis after a 20 week training program. Methods: Using data from DNA microarray experiments registered in the NCBI GEO DataSet database GSE117070, we calculated the Z ratio values as the criterion to evaluate the differential expression of genes associated with chromatin modification during aerobic training in skeletal muscle. Using the web interface GENEMANIA, we built a co-expression interaction network with the overexpressed genes. We compared Z-score values obtained from pre-trained and post-trained samples through nonparametric tests. Results: We found 10 overexpressed genes after the 20 week training program, namely, EZH1, KMT2A, KMT2D, KDM4C, KDM6A, CREBBP, HDAC10, HDAC4, DNMT3L, and H2AX. The most relevant biological processes obtained from the network included chromatin organization (FDR 9.04×10-9) and histone modification (FDR 9.04×10-9). Conclusions: In skeletal muscle, after aerobic training, there is overexpression of genes associated with the modification of the chromatin through alterations in histones and DNA, resulting in epigenetic transcriptional changes.

Genomics and transcriptomics landscapes associated to changes in insulin sensitivity in response to endurance exercise training

Despite good adherence to supervised endurance exercise training (EET), some individuals experience no or little improvement in peripheral insulin sensitivity. The genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are currently not understood. By investigating genome-wide variants associated with baseline and exercise-induced changes (∆) in insulin sensitivity index (S_i) in healthy volunteers, we have identified novel candidate genes whose mouse knockouts phenotypes were consistent with a causative effect on S_i. An integrative analysis of functional genomic and transcriptomic profiles suggests genetic variants have an aggregate effect on baseline S_i and ∆S_i, focused around cholinergic signalling, including downstream calcium and chemokine signalling. The identification of calcium regulated MEF2A transcription factor as the most statistically significant candidate driving the transcriptional signature associated to ∆S_i further strengthens the relevance of calcium signalling in EET mediated S_i response.

Aerobic Exercise Improves Mitochondrial Function in Sarcopenia Mice Through Sestrin2 in an AMPKα2-Dependent Manner

Sarcopenia, the age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass and function, contributes to high morbidity and mortality in the older population. Regular exercise is necessary to avoid the initiation and progression of sarcopenia, in which the underlying molecular mechanism is still not clear. Our data revealed that the outcomes induced by sarcopenia, including muscle mass and strength loss, decreased cross-sectional area of gastrocnemius fiber, chronic inflammation, and increased dysfunctional mitochondria, were reversed by regulation exercise. Knockout or silencing of Sestrin2 (Sesn2) resulted in imbalanced mitochondrial fusion and fission, mitochondrial biogenesis, and mitophagy damage in vivo and in vitro, which was attenuated by aerobic exercise or overexpression of Sesn2. Moreover, we found that the effects of Sesn2 on mitochondrial function are dependent on AMP-activated protein kinase α2 (AMPKα2). This study indicates that aerobic exercise alleviates the negative effects resulting from sarcopenia via the Sesn2/AMPKα2 pathway and provides new insights into the molecular mechanism by which the Sesn2/AMPKα2 signaling axis mediates the beneficial impact of exercise on sarcopenia.

Multifaceted Role of AMPK in Viral Infections

Viral pathogens often exploit host cell regulatory and signaling pathways to ensure an optimal environment for growth and survival. Several studies have suggested that 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an intracellular serine/threonine kinase, plays a significant role in the modulation of infection. Traditionally, AMPK is a key energy regulator of cell growth and proliferation, host autophagy, stress responses, metabolic reprogramming, mitochondrial homeostasis, fatty acid β-oxidation and host immune function. In this review, we highlight the modulation of host AMPK by various viruses under physiological conditions. These intracellular pathogens trigger metabolic changes altering AMPK signaling activity that then facilitates or inhibits viral replication. Considering the COVID-19 pandemic, understanding the regulation of AMPK signaling following infection can shed light on the development of more effective therapeutic strategies against viral infectious diseases.

Targets identified from exercised heart: killing multiple birds with one stone

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a major cause of mortality worldwide, which are mainly driven by factors such as aging, sedentary lifestyle, and excess alcohol use. Exercise targets several molecules and protects hearts against many of these physiological and pathological stimuli. Accordingly, it is widely recognized as an effective therapeutic strategy for CVD. To investigate the molecular mechanism of exercise in cardiac protection, we identify and describe several crucial targets identified from exercised hearts. These targets include insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1)-phosphatidylinositol 3 phosphate kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT), transcription factor CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ), cardiac microRNAs (miRNAs, miR-222 and miR-17-3p etc.), exosomal-miRNAs (miR-342, miR-29, etc.), Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), and nuclear factor erythroid 2‑related factor/metallothioneins (Nrf2/Mts). Targets identified from exercised hearts can alleviate injury via multiple avenues, including: (1) promoting cardiomyocyte proliferation; (2) facilitating cardiomyocyte growth and physiologic hypertrophy; (3) elevating the anti-apoptotic capacity of cardiomyocytes; (4) improving vascular endothelial function; (5) inhibiting pathological remodeling and fibrosis; (6) promoting extracellular vesicles (EVs) production and exosomal-molecules transfer. Exercise is one treatment (‘stone’), which is cardioprotective via multiple avenues (‘birds’), and is considered ‘killing multiple birds with one stone’ in this review. Further, we discuss the potential application of EV cargos in CVD treatment. We provide an outline of targets identified from the exercised heart and their mechanisms, as well as novel ideas for CVD treatment, which may provide novel direction for preclinical trials in cardiac rehabilitation.

The mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction and glucose intake decrease induced by Microcystin-LR in ovarian granulosa cells

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is a cyclic heptapeptide; it is an intracellular toxin released by cyanobacteria that exhibits strong reproductive toxicity. Previous studies have demonstrated that MC-LR induces oxidative stress in granulosa cells by damaging the mitochondria, which eventually leads to follicle atresia and female subfertility. In the present study, granulosa cells were exposed to 0, 0.01, 0.1 and 1 μM MC-LR. After 24 h, we observed changes in mitochondrial cristae morphology and dynamics by analyzing the results of mitochondrial transmission electron microscopy and detecting the expression of DRP1. We also evaluated glucose intake using biochemical assays and expression of glucose transport related proteins. MC-LR exposure resulted in mitochondrial fragmentation and glucose intake decrease in granulosa cells, as shown by increasing mitochondrial fission via dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) upregulation and decreasing glucose transporter 1 and 4 (GLUT1 and GLUT4). Furthermore, the expression levels of forkhead box protein M1 (FOXM1) significantly increased due to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after MC-LR exposure. Our results proved that MC-LR exposure causes mitochondrial fragmentation and glucose intake decrease in granulosa cells, which provides new insights to study the molecular mechanism of female reproductive toxicity induced by MC-LR.

Histone deacetylase 5 regulates interleukin 6 secretion and insulin action in skeletal muscle

OBJECTIVE

Physical exercise training is associated with increased glucose uptake in skeletal muscle and improved glycemic control. HDAC5, a class IIa histone deacetylase, has been shown to regulate transcription of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter GLUT4 in cultured muscle cells. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of HDAC5 to the transcriptional network in muscle and the beneficial effect of muscle contraction and regular exercise on glucose metabolism.

METHODS

HDAC5 knockout mice (KO) and wild-type (WT) littermates were trained for 8 weeks on treadmills, metabolically phenotyped, and compared to sedentary controls. Hdac5-deficient skeletal muscle and cultured Hdac5-knockdown (KD) C2C12 myotubes were utilized for studies of gene expression and glucose metabolism. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) studies were conducted to analyze Il6 promoter activity using H3K9ac and HDAC5 antibodies.

RESULTS

Global transcriptome analysis of Hdac5 KO gastrocnemius muscle demonstrated activation of the IL-6 signaling pathway. Accordingly, knockdown of Hdac5 in C2C12 myotubes led to higher expression and secretion of IL-6 with enhanced insulin-stimulated activation of AKT that was reversed by Il6 knockdown. Moreover, Hdac5-deficient myotubes exhibited enhanced glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, and elevated expression levels of the glucose transporter GLUT4. Transcription of Il6 was further enhanced by electrical pulse stimulation in Hdac5-deficient C2C12 myotubes. ChIP identified a ∼1 kb fragment of the Il6 promoter that interacts with HDAC5 and demonstrated increased activation-associated histone marker AcH3K9 in Hdac5-deficient muscle cells. Exercise intervention of HDAC5 KO mice resulted in improved systemic glucose tolerance as compared to WT controls.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified HDAC5 as a negative epigenetic regulator of IL-6 synthesis and release in skeletal muscle. HDAC5 may exert beneficial effects through two different mechanisms, transcriptional control of genes required for glucose disposal and utilization, and HDAC5-dependent IL-6 signaling cross-talk to improve glucose uptake in muscle in response to exercise.

Role of Histone Deacetylases in Skeletal Muscle Physiology and Systemic Energy Homeostasis: Implications for Metabolic Diseases and Therapy

Skeletal muscle is the largest metabolic organ in the human body and is able to rapidly adapt to drastic changes during exercise. Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs), which target histone and non-histone proteins, are two major enzyme families that control the biological process of histone acetylation and deacetylation. Balance between these two enzymes serves as an essential element for gene expression and metabolic and physiological function. Genetic KO/TG murine models reveal that HDACs possess pivotal roles in maintaining skeletal muscles' metabolic homeostasis, regulating skeletal muscles motor adaptation and exercise capacity. HDACs may be involved in mitochondrial remodeling, insulin sensitivity regulation, turn on/off of metabolic fuel switching and orchestrating physiological homeostasis of skeletal muscles from the process of myogenesis. Moreover, many myogenic factors and metabolic factors are modulated by HDACs. HDACs are considered as therapeutic targets in clinical research for treatment of cancer, inflammation, and neurological and metabolic-related diseases. This review will focus on physiological function of HDACs in skeletal muscles and provide new ideas for the treatment of metabolic diseases.

Glucose transporters in adipose tissue, liver, and skeletal muscle in metabolic health and disease

A family of facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) is involved in regulating tissue-specific glucose uptake and metabolism in the liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue to ensure homeostatic control of blood glucose levels. Reduced glucose transport activity results in aberrant use of energy substrates and is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. It is well established that GLUT2, the main regulator of hepatic hexose flux, and GLUT4, the workhorse in insulin- and contraction-stimulated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, are critical contributors in the control of whole-body glycemia. However, the molecular mechanism how insulin controls glucose transport across membranes and its relation to impaired glycemic control in type 2 diabetes remains not sufficiently understood. An array of circulating metabolites and hormone-like molecules and potential supplementary glucose transporters play roles in fine-tuning glucose flux between the different organs in response to an altered energy demand.

Transcriptional memory in skeletal muscle. Don't forget (to) exercise

Transcriptional memory describes an ancient and highly conserved form of cellular learning that enables cells to benefit from recent experience by retaining a mitotically inheritable but reversible memory of the initial transcriptional response when encountering an environmental or physiological stimulus. Herein, we will review recent progress made in the understanding of how cells can make use of diverse constituents of the epigenetic toolbox to retain a transcriptional memory of past states and perturbations. Specifically, we will outline how these mechanisms will help to improve our understanding of skeletal muscle plasticity in health and disease. We describe the epigenetic road map that allows skeletal muscle fibers to navigate through training-induced adaptation processes, and how epigenetic memory marks can preserve an autobiographical history of lifestyle behavior changes, pathological challenges, and aging. We will further consider some key findings in the field of exercise epigenomics to emphasize major challenges when interpreting dynamic changes in the chromatin landscape in response to acute exercise and training.

Shengmai Injection Suppresses Angiotensin II-Induced Cardiomyocyte Hypertrophy and Apoptosis via Activation of the AMPK Signaling Pathway Through Energy-Dependent Mechanisms

Shengmai injection (SMI), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Mey., Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl., and Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., has been used to treat acute and chronic heart failure. This study aimed to further clarify the effects of SMI on energy metabolism. SMI could improve cell-survival rate and also reduce myocardial cell hypertrophy and apoptosis. Mitochondria are important sites of cellular energy metabolism, and SMI protects mitochondrial function which was evaluated by mitochondrial ultrastructure, mitochondrial respiratory control ratio (RCR), and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) in this study. The expression levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and phosphocreatine (PCr) increased. The expression levels of free fatty acid oxidation [carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1)], glucose oxidation [glucose transporter-4 (GLUT-4)], and mitochondrial biogenesis-related genes (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α [PGC-1α]) were upregulated after SMI treatment. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an important signaling pathway regulating energy metabolism and also can regulate the above-mentioned indicators. In the present study, SMI was found to promote phosphorylation of AMPK. However, the effects of SMI on fatty acid, glucose oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, as well as inhibiting apoptosis of hypertrophic cardiomyocytes were partly blocked by AMPK inhibitor–compound C. Moreover, decreased myocardial hypertrophy and apoptosis treated by SMI were inhibited by AMPK knockdown with shAMPK to a certain degree and AMPK knockdown almost abolished the SMI-induced increase in the expression of GLUT-4, CPT-1, and PGC-1α. These data suggest that SMI suppressed Ang II–induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and apoptosis via activation of the AMPK signaling pathway through energy-dependent mechanisms.

4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase promotes lung cancer growth via pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) flux mediated by LKB1-AMPK/HDAC10/G6PD axis

4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPD) is an important modifier of tyrosine metabolism. However, the precise contribution of HPD to cancer metabolism and tumorigenesis remains unclear. In this study, we found that HPD was highly expressed in lung cancer and its higher expression correlated with poor prognosis in lung cancer patients. Suppressed HPD expression was sufficient to decrease oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) flux, leading to reduced RNA biosynthesis and enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, attenuated cancer cell proliferation, and tumor growth. Mechanistically, HPD not only promotes tyrosine catabolism leading to increased acetyl-CoA levels, the source of histone acetylation, but also stimulates histone deacetylase 10 (HDAC10) translocation from the nucleus into the cytoplasm mediated by tumor suppressor liver kinase B1 (LKB1)-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling. Both controlled histone acetylation modification, which enhanced transcription of the important PPP enzyme Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD). Thus, this study reveals HPD as a novel regulator of LKB1-AMPK signaling-mediated HDAC10 nuclear location, which contributes to G6PD expression in promoting tumor growth, which is a promising target for lung cancer treatment.

Activation of AMPK inhibits TGF-β1-induced airway smooth muscle cells proliferation and its potential mechanisms

The aims of the present study were to examine signaling mechanisms underlying transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)-induced airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) proliferation and to determine the effect of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation on TGF-β1-induced ASMCs proliferation and its potential mechanisms. TGF-β1 reduced microRNA-206 (miR-206) level by activating Smad2/3, and this in turn up-regulated histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) and consequently increased cyclin D1 protein leading to ASMCs proliferation. Prior incubation of ASMCs with metformin induced AMPK activation and blocked TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation. Activation of AMPK slightly attenuated TGF-β1-induced miR-206 suppression, but dramatically suppressed TGF-β1-caused HDAC4 up-expression and significantly increased HDAC4 phosphorylation finally leading to reduction of up-regulated cyclin D1 protein expression. Our study suggests that activation of AMPK modulates miR-206/HDAC4/cyclin D1 signaling pathway, particularly targeting on HDAC4, to suppress ASMCs proliferation and therefore has a potential value in the prevention and treatment of asthma by alleviating airway remodeling.