Modulation of Kir4.2 rectification properties and pHi-sensitive run-down by association with Kir5.1

The physiological characteristics of inward rectifying potassium channel Kir4.2 and its research progress in human diseases

Kir4.2 is a member of the inward rectifying potassium channel family, encoded by the KCNJ15 gene. The Kir4.2 protein is expressed in various organs including the kidneys, liver, pancreas, bladder, stomach, and lungs. Kir4.2 not only forms functional homomeric channels, but also heteromeric channels with Kir5.1. An increasing number of studies indicate that the function of the Kir4.2 channel should not be underestimated. Kir4.2 participates in cell electrotaxis chemotaxis by sensing extracellular electric fields and functions as a K + sensor in the proximal tubules of the kidney, playing a crucial role in maintaining acid-base and potassium balance. This article provides a comprehensive review of the main physiological characteristics of the Kir4.2 channel, the various pathological processes it is involved in, and the human diseases resulting from Kir4.2 dysfunction.

Role of Kir5.1 (Kcnj16) Channels in Regulating Renal Ammonia Metabolism during Metabolic Acidosis in Dahl Salt-Sensitive Rats

Maintaining acid-base homeostasis is critical for normal physiological function. The kidneys are essential for regulating acid-base homeostasis through maintaining systemic bicarbonate concentration. Chronic metabolic acidosis is an independent risk factor for chronic kidney diseases. Renal inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir5.1 plays an essential role in maintaining resting membrane potential. Patients with loss-of-function mutations in the KCNJ16 gene, which encodes Kir5.1, may have tubulopathy with hypokalemia, salt wasting, and hearing loss. Importantly, these mutations also disrupt acid-base balance, particularly causing metabolic acidosis. This study aimed to use Dahl salt-sensitive rats with a knockout of the Kcnj16 gene (SSKcnj16-/-) to investigate how the deletion of Kir5.1 affects the regulation of acid-base balance in salt-sensitive hypertension. SSKcnj16-/- rats displayed metabolic acidosis under a normal salt diet. Further analysis using RNA sequencing and Western blot analyses showed unchanged expression of proteins responsible for ammonia metabolism in the kidney of SSKcnj16-/- rats despite observed acidosis. However, there was a significant increase in the expression of bicarbonate transporter NBCe1, where there was a significant decrease in pendrin. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that the loss of Kir5.1 impairs the sensitivity of ammonia metabolism in the kidney in response to metabolic acidosis, which provides mechanistic insights into developing potential therapeutics for conditions involving hypokalemia and acid-base abnormalities.

Kir5.1 channels: potential role in epilepsy and seizure disorders

Inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels are broadly expressed in many mammalian organ systems, where they contribute to critical physiological functions. However, the importance and function of the Kir5.1 channel (encoded by the KCNJ16 gene) have not been fully recognized. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding the expression patterns and functional roles of Kir5.1 channels in fundamental physiological systems vital to potassium homeostasis and neurological disorders. Recent studies have described the role of Kir5.1-forming Kir channels in mouse and rat lines with mutations in the Kcnj16 gene. The animal research reveals distinct renal and neurological phenotypes, including pH and electrolyte imbalances, blunted ventilatory responses to hypercapnia/hypoxia, and seizure disorders. Furthermore, it was confirmed that these phenotypes are reminiscent of those in patient cohorts in which mutations in the KCNJ16 gene have also been identified, further suggesting a critical role for Kir5.1 channels in homeostatic/neural systems health and disease. Future studies that focus on the many functional roles of these channels, expanded genetic screening in human patients, and the development of selective small-molecule inhibitors for Kir5.1 channels, will continue to increase our understanding of this unique Kir channel family member.

Expression, localization, and functional properties of inwardly rectifying K+ channels in the kidney

Inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels are expressed in multiple organs and cell types and play critical roles in cellular function. Most notably, Kir channels are major determinants of the resting membrane potential and K+ homeostasis. The renal outer medullary K+ channel (Kir1.1) was the first renal Kir channel identified and cloned in the kidney over two decades ago. Since then, several additional members, including classical and ATP-regulated Kir family classes, have been identified to be expressed in the kidney and to contribute to renal ion transport. Although the ATP-regulated Kir channel class remains the most well known due to severe pathological phenotypes associated with their mutations, progress is being made in defining the properties, localization, and physiological functions of other renal Kir channels, including those localized to the basolateral epithelium. This review is primarily focused on the current knowledge of the expression and localization of renal Kir channels but will also briefly describe their proposed functions in the kidney.

Suppression of KCNQ/M (Kv7) potassium channels in dorsal root ganglion neurons contributes to the development of bone cancer pain in a rat model

Bone cancer pain has a strong impact on the quality of life of patients, but is difficult to treat. Better understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying bone cancer pain will likely lead to the development of more effective treatments. In the present study, we investigated whether inhibition of KCNQ/M channels contributed to the hyperexcitability of primary sensory neurons and to the pathogenesis of bone cancer pain. By using a rat model of bone cancer pain based on intratibial injection of MRMT-1 tumour cells, we documented a prominent decrease in expression of KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 proteins and a reduction of M-current density in small-sized dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, which were associated with enhanced excitability of these DRG neurons and the hyperalgesic behaviours in bone cancer rats. Coincidently, we found that inhibition of KCNQ/M channels with XE-991 caused a robust increase in the excitability of small-sized DRG neurons and produced an obvious mechanical allodynia in normal rats. On the contrary, activation of the KCNQ/M channels with retigabine not only inhibited the hyperexcitability of these small DRG neurons, but also alleviated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in bone cancer rats, and all of these effects of retigabine could be blocked by KCNQ/M-channel antagonist XE-991. These results suggest that repression of KCNQ/M channels leads to the hyperexcitability of primary sensory neurons, which in turn causes bone cancer pain. Thus, suppression of KCNQ/M channels in primary DRG neurons plays a crucial role in the development of bone cancer pain.

Genetic defects in the hotspot of inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir) channels and their metabolic consequences: a review

Inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels are essential for maintaining normal potassium homeostasis and the resting membrane potential. As a consequence, mutations in Kir channels cause debilitating diseases ranging from cardiac failure to renal, ocular, pancreatic, and neurological abnormalities. Structurally, Kir channels consist of two trans-membrane domains, a pore-forming loop that contains the selectivity filter and two cytoplasmic polar tails. Within the cytoplasmic structure, clusters of amino acid sequences form regulatory domains that interact with cellular metabolites to control the opening and closing of the channel. In this review, we present an overview of Kir channel function and recent progress in the characterization of selected Kir channel mutations that lie in and near a C-terminal cytoplasmic 'hotspot' domain. The resultant molecular mechanisms by which the loss or gain of channel function leads to organ failure provide potential opportunities for targeted therapeutic interventions for this important group of channelopathies.

Potassium-dependent activation of Kir4.2 K⁺ channels

The inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir4.2 is sensitive to changes in the extracellular potassium concentration ([K(+)](o)). This form of regulation is manifest as a slow (tens of minutes) increase in the whole-cell currents when [K(+)](o) is increased. Here we have investigated the mechanism of K(o)(+) sensitivity of Kir4.2 expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Using two-electrode voltage clamp we found that the sensitivity is specific for the homomeric form of the channel and is completely abolished when coexpressed with Kir5.1. Furthermore, unlike Kir1.1, there is no coupling between the intracellular pH sensitivity and K(o)(+) sensitivity, as is evident by introducing a mutation (K66M), which greatly decreases the pH(i) sensitivity while the K(o)(+) sensitivity remains unchanged. K(o)(+)-dependent activation of Kir4.2 does not involve an increase in the surface expression of the channel, nor is there a difference in the open probability between high and low [K(+)] as determined through patch-clamp measurements. We also found that there is an inverse relationship between the rates of both activation and deactivation and [K(+)](o). Using a kinetic model we argue that Kir4.2 exists in at least three states at the plasma membrane: a deactivated state, an intermediate unstable state and an active state, and that [K(+)](o) affects the rate of transition from the intermediate state to the active state.

MUPP1 complexes renal K+ channels to alter cell surface expression and whole cell currents

We previously found that the Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaR) interacts with and inactivates the inwardly rectifying K(+) channel Kir4.2 that is expressed in the kidney cortex and that has a COOH-terminal PDZ domain. To identify potential scaffolding proteins that could organize a macromolecular signaling complex involving the CaR and Kir4.2, we used yeast two-hybrid cloning with the COOH-terminal 125 amino acids (AA) of Kir4.2 as bait to screen a human kidney cDNA library. We identified two independent partial cDNAs corresponding to the COOH-terminal 900 AA of MUPP1, a protein containing 13 PDZ binding domains that is expressed in the kidney in tight junctions and lateral borders of epithelial cells. When expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells, Kir4.2 coimmunoprecipitates reciprocally with MUPP1 but not with a Kir4.2 construct lacking the four COOH-terminal amino acids, Kir5.1, or the CaR. MUPP1 and Kir4.2 coimmunoprecipitate reciprocally from rat kidney cortex extracts. Coexpression of MUPP1 with Kir4.2 in HEK-293 cells leads to reduced cell surface expression of Kir4.2 as assessed by cell surface biotinylation. Coexpression of MUPP1 and Kir4.2 in Xenopus oocytes results in reduced whole cell currents compared with expression of Kir4.2 alone, whereas expression of Kir4.2DeltaPDZ results in minimal currents and is not affected by coexpression with MUPP1. Immunofluorescence studies of oocytes demonstrate that MUPP1 reduces Kir4.2 membrane localization. These results indicate that Kir4.2 interacts selectively with MUPP1 to affect its cell surface expression. Thus MUPP1 and Kir4.2 may participate in a protein complex in the nephron that could regulate transport of K(+) as well as other ions.

Expression of inwardly rectifying potassium channel subunits in native human retinal pigment epithelium

Previously, we demonstrated that the inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir) channel subunit Kir7.1 is highly expressed in bovine and human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). The purpose of this study was to determine whether any of the 14 other members of the Kir gene family are expressed in native human RPE. Conventional reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis indicated that in addition to Kir7.1, seven other Kir channel subunits (Kir1.1, Kir2.1, Kir2.2, Kir3.1, Kir3.4, Kir4.2 and Kir6.1) are expressed in the RPE, whereas in neural retina, all 14 of the Kir channel subunits examined are expressed. The identities of RT-PCR products in the RPE were confirmed by DNA sequencing. Real-time RT-PCR analysis showed, however, that transcripts of these channels are significantly less abundant than Kir7.1 in the RPE. Western blot analysis of the Kir channel subunits detected in the RPE by RT-PCR revealed the expression of Kir2.1, Kir3.1, Kir3.4, Kir4.2, Kir6.1, and possibly Kir2.2, but not Kir1.1, in both human RPE and neural retina. Our results indicate that human RPE expresses at least five other Kir channel subtypes in addition to Kir7.1, suggesting that multiple members of the Kir channel family may function in this epithelium.