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Chrobak AA, Pańczyszyn-Trzewik P, Król P, Pawelec-Bąk M, Dudek D, Siwek M. New Light on Prions: Putative Role of PrP c in Pathophysiology of Mood Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2967. [PMID: 38474214 PMCID: PMC10932175 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Mood disorders are highly prevalent and heterogenous mental illnesses with devastating rates of mortality and treatment resistance. The molecular basis of those conditions involves complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Currently, there are no objective procedures for diagnosis, prognosis and personalization of patients' treatment. There is an urgent need to search for novel molecular targets for biomarkers in mood disorders. Cellular prion protein (PrPc) is infamous for its potential to convert its insoluble form, leading to neurodegeneration in Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease. Meanwhile, in its physiological state, PrPc presents neuroprotective features and regulates neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. The aim of this study is to integrate the available knowledge about molecular mechanisms underlying the impact of PrPc on the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Our review indicates an important role of this protein in regulation of cognitive functions, emotions, sleep and biological rhythms, and its deficiency results in depressive-like behavior and cognitive impairment. PrPc plays a neuroprotective role against excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and inflammation, the main pathophysiological events in the course of mood disorders. Research indicates that PrPc may be a promising biomarker of cognitive decline. There is an urgent need of human studies to elucidate its potential utility in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Andrzej Chrobak
- Department of Adult Psychiatry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 21A, 31-501 Kraków, Poland; (A.A.C.); (P.K.); (D.D.)
| | - Patrycja Pańczyszyn-Trzewik
- Department of Human Physiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland;
| | - Patrycja Król
- Department of Adult Psychiatry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 21A, 31-501 Kraków, Poland; (A.A.C.); (P.K.); (D.D.)
| | - Magdalena Pawelec-Bąk
- Department of Affective Disorders, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 21A, 31-501 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Dominika Dudek
- Department of Adult Psychiatry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 21A, 31-501 Kraków, Poland; (A.A.C.); (P.K.); (D.D.)
| | - Marcin Siwek
- Department of Affective Disorders, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 21A, 31-501 Kraków, Poland;
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2
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Matamoros-Angles A, Hervera A, Soriano J, Martí E, Carulla P, Llorens F, Nuvolone M, Aguzzi A, Ferrer I, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM, Del Río JA. Analysis of co-isogenic prion protein deficient mice reveals behavioral deficits, learning impairment, and enhanced hippocampal excitability. BMC Biol 2022; 20:17. [PMID: 35027047 PMCID: PMC8759182 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01203-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a cell surface GPI-anchored protein, usually known for its role in the pathogenesis of human and animal prionopathies. However, increasing knowledge about the participation of PrPC in prion pathogenesis contrasts with puzzling data regarding its natural physiological role. PrPC is expressed in a number of tissues, including at high levels in the nervous system, especially in neurons and glial cells, and while previous studies have established a neuroprotective role, conflicting evidence for a synaptic function has revealed both reduced and enhanced long-term potentiation, and variable observations on memory, learning, and behavior. Such evidence has been confounded by the absence of an appropriate knock-out mouse model to dissect the biological relevance of PrPC, with some functions recently shown to be misattributed to PrPC due to the presence of genetic artifacts in mouse models. Here we elucidate the role of PrPC in the hippocampal circuitry and its related functions, such as learning and memory, using a recently available strictly co-isogenic Prnp0/0 mouse model (PrnpZH3/ZH3). Results We performed behavioral and operant conditioning tests to evaluate memory and learning capabilities, with results showing decreased motility, impaired operant conditioning learning, and anxiety-related behavior in PrnpZH3/ZH3 animals. We also carried in vivo electrophysiological recordings on CA3-CA1 synapses in living behaving mice and monitored spontaneous neuronal firing and network formation in primary neuronal cultures of PrnpZH3/ZH3 vs wildtype mice. PrPC absence enhanced susceptibility to high-intensity stimulations and kainate-induced seizures. However, long-term potentiation (LTP) was not enhanced in the PrnpZH3/ZH3 hippocampus. In addition, we observed a delay in neuronal maturation and network formation in PrnpZH3/ZH3 cultures. Conclusion Our results demonstrate that PrPC promotes neuronal network formation and connectivity. PrPC mediates synaptic function and protects the synapse from excitotoxic insults. Its deletion may underlie an epileptogenic-susceptible brain that fails to perform highly cognitive-demanding tasks such as associative learning and anxiety-like behaviors. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01203-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Matamoros-Angles
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - A Hervera
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Soriano
- Departament de Física de la Materia Condensada, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Complex Systems (UBICS), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - E Martí
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Bioinformatics and Genomics, Center for Genomic Regulation, Barcelona, Spain
| | - P Carulla
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Llorens
- CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Göttingen, Germany.,Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Catalonia, Spain
| | - M Nuvolone
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Amyloidosis Center, Foundation IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - A Aguzzi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - I Ferrer
- CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Senior Consultant, Bellvitge University Hospital, IDIBELL (Bellvitge Biomedical Research Centre), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain.,Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - A Gruart
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013, Seville, Spain
| | - J M Delgado-García
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013, Seville, Spain.
| | - J A Del Río
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,CIBERNED (Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Institute of Health Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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3
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Li Z, Wang G, Zhong S, Liao X, Lai S, Shan Y, Chen J, Zhang L, Lu Q, Shen S, Huang H, Zhang Y, Zhang L, Jia Y. Alleviation of cognitive deficits and high copper levels by an NMDA receptor antagonist in a rat depression model. Compr Psychiatry 2020; 102:152200. [PMID: 32892027 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder (MDD) is frequently associated with cognitive deficits and high copper levels. Dysfunction of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors has been postulated to underlie MDD pathogenesis. This study sought to investigate the curative effect of the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine on cognitive deficits in depression and the underlying mechanisms. METHODS Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats received corticosterone (CORT) (20 mg/kg) bi-weekly via subcutaneous injection and/or copper gluconate (7 mg/kg) via daily intragastric administration. After 3 weeks, sucrose preference tests and open field tests showed anhedonia and high anxiety in both the CORT and CORT+Cu groups. Memantine intervention (20 mg/kg daily via intragastric administration for 14 days) led to recovery of anhedonia and anxiety behaviors. Memantine also remarkably suppressed serum copper ion levels. Moreover, memantine treatment effectively rescued depression-related spatial memory deficits as shown by the Morris water maze task. RESULTS Compared to the pre-memantine treatment results, the results of behavioral tests and cognitive function after memantine treatment were significantly normalized, and the copper concentration was decreased in all groups. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our findings suggest that the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine may improve symptoms of anhedonia and anxiety and the cognitive deficits associated with depression, likely be related to suppress serum copper ion levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhinan Li
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Psychiatry Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guodong Wang
- Department of Transplantation Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuming Zhong
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Liao
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shunkai Lai
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | | | | | - Lu Zhang
- Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | | | | | | | - Yiliang Zhang
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Zhang
- GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Yanbin Jia
- Psychiatry Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.
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4
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Słupski J, Cubała WJ, Górska N, Słupska A, Gałuszko-Węgielnik M. Copper and anti-anhedonic effect of ketamine in treatment-resistant depression. Med Hypotheses 2020; 144:110268. [PMID: 33254572 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) remains one of the major psychiatric challenges worldwide. Search for non-monoaminergic agents, possibly effective in treatment of TRD is of prime importance. One of those agents is ketamine - a dissociative, anesthetic drug exhibiting a fast antidepressant action in patients with TRD. Concurrently, anhedonia appears to be significant symptom domain with far-reaching impact on course of treatment. There is data demonstrating that abnormal copper levels might be associated with symptoms of depression. As there is common denominator in ketamine and copper role in neurotransmission this paper is to explore the associations of blood copper levels and psychometric measures in patients with TRD in course of major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BP), focusing on anhedonia measured with Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) score.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Słupski
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Wiesław Jerzy Cubała
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Natalia Górska
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Anita Słupska
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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Qi B, Fiori LM, Turecki G, Trakadis YJ. Machine Learning Analysis of Blood microRNA Data in Major Depression: A Case-Control Study for Biomarker Discovery. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 23:505-510. [PMID: 32365192 PMCID: PMC7689198 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a lack of reliable biomarkers for major depressive disorder (MDD) in clinical practice. However, several studies have shown an association between alterations in microRNA levels and MDD, albeit none of them has taken advantage of machine learning (ML). METHOD Supervised and unsupervised ML were applied to blood microRNA expression profiles from a MDD case-control dataset (n = 168) to distinguish between (1) case vs control status, (2) MDD severity levels defined based on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale, and (3) antidepressant responders vs nonresponders. RESULTS MDD cases were distinguishable from healthy controls with an area-under-the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.97 on testing data. High- vs low-severity cases were distinguishable with an AUC of 0.63. Unsupervised clustering of patients, before supervised ML analysis of each cluster for MDD severity, improved the performance of the classifiers (AUC of 0.70 for cluster 1 and 0.76 for cluster 2). Antidepressant responders could not be successfully separated from nonresponders, even after patient stratification by unsupervised clustering. However, permutation testing of the top microRNA, identified by the ML model trained to distinguish responders vs nonresponders in each of the 2 clusters, showed an association with antidepressant response. Each of these microRNA markers was only significant when comparing responders vs nonresponders of the corresponding cluster, but not using the heterogeneous unclustered patient set. CONCLUSIONS Supervised and unsupervised ML analysis of microRNA may lead to robust biomarkers for monitoring clinical evolution and for more timely assessment of treatment in MDD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bill Qi
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Laura M Fiori
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gustavo Turecki
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Yannis J Trakadis
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada,Department of Psychiatry, McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,Department of Medical Genetics, McGill University Health Center, Montreal, QC, Canada,Correspondence: Yannis J. Trakadis, MD MSc FRCPC FCCMG, Human Genetics, McGill University Health Centre, Room A04.3140, Montreal Children’s Hospital, 1001 Boul. Décarie, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H4A 3J1 ()
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6
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Salvesen Ø, Tatzelt J, Tranulis MA. The prion protein in neuroimmune crosstalk. Neurochem Int 2018; 130:104335. [PMID: 30448564 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a medium-sized glycoprotein, attached to the cell surface by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. PrPC is encoded by a single-copy gene, PRNP, which is abundantly expressed in the central nervous system and at lower levels in non-neuronal cells, including those of the immune system. Evidence from experimental knockout of PRNP in rodents, goats, and cattle and the occurrence of a nonsense mutation in goat that prevents synthesis of PrPC, have shown that the molecule is non-essential for life. Indeed, no easily recognizable phenotypes are associate with a lack of PrPC, except the potentially advantageous trait that animals without PrPC cannot develop prion disease. This is because, in prion diseases, PrPC converts to a pathogenic "scrapie" conformer, PrPSc, which aggregates and eventually induces neurodegeneration. In addition, endogenous neuronal PrPC serves as a toxic receptor to mediate prion-induced neurotoxicity. Thus, PrPC is an interesting target for treatment of prion diseases. Although loss of PrPC has no discernable effect, alteration of its normal physiological function can have very harmful consequences. It is therefore important to understand cellular processes involving PrPC, and research of this topic has advanced considerably in the past decade. Here, we summarize data that indicate the role of PrPC in modulating immune signaling, with emphasis on neuroimmune crosstalk both under basal conditions and during inflammatory stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Salvesen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway.
| | - Jörg Tatzelt
- Department Biochemistry of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute of Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Michael A Tranulis
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway.
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Peggion C, Stella R, Chemello F, Massimino ML, Arrigoni G, Cagnin S, Biancotto G, Franchin C, Sorgato MC, Bertoli A. The Prion Protein Regulates Synaptic Transmission by Controlling the Expression of Proteins Key to Synaptic Vesicle Recycling and Exocytosis. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:3420-36. [PMID: 30128651 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1293-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrPC), whose misfolded conformers are implicated in prion diseases, localizes to both the presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic density. To explore possible molecular contributions of PrPC to synaptic transmission, we utilized a mass spectrometry approach to quantify the release of glutamate from primary cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) expressing, or deprived of (PrP-KO), PrPC, following a depolarizing stimulus. Under the same conditions, we also tracked recycling of synaptic vesicles (SVs) in the two neuronal populations. We found that in PrP-KO CGN these processes decreased by 40 and 60%, respectively, compared to PrPC-expressing neurons. Unbiased quantitative mass spectrometry was then employed to compare the whole proteome of CGN with the two PrP genotypes. This approach allowed us to assess that, relative to the PrPC-expressing counterpart, the absence of PrPC modified the protein expression profile, including diminution of some components of SV recycling and fusion machinery. Subsequent quantitative RT-PCR closely reproduced proteomic data, indicating that PrPC is committed to ensuring optimal synaptic transmission by regulating genes involved in SV dynamics and neurotransmitter release. These novel molecular and cellular aspects of PrPC add insight into the underlying mechanisms for synaptic dysfunctions occurring in neurodegenerative disorders in which a compromised PrPC is likely to intervene.
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8
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Słupski J, Cubała WJ, Górska N, Gałuszko-Węgielnik M, Wiglusz MS. Role of copper in depression. Relationship with ketamine treatment. Med Hypotheses 2018; 119:14-17. [PMID: 30122482 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Depression is one of the most common psychiatric issues with a proportion of adults with major depressive disorder who fail to achieve remission with index pharmacological treatment. There are unmet needs in ADT focus on non-monoaminergic agents. Accumulating evidence suggests that the N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) plays an important role in the neurobiology and treatment of major depressive disorder. The role of copper ions in pathogenesis and treatment of depression is not fully clarified, however interaction between copper and NMDAR is of prime importance. Release of copper ions inhibits NMDAR and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor function thus protects neurons from glutamatergic excitotoxity. Abnormalities in glutamatergic transmission are the key of glutamate hypothesis of depression. Some authors revealed that NMDARs are also regulated by cellular prion protein (PrPC) and indicated that interactions of copper, glycine and NMDARs subunits are vital for the regulation of the receptor. As NMDAR antagonist ketamine is known to produce rapid antidepressive effect, observation of copper serum levels in patients treated with ketamine may provide important information about connections between NMDAR antagonistic agents and trace elements antagonistic to that receptor. It is necessary to carry out further studies related to copper and ketamine in depression treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Słupski
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Wiesław Jerzy Cubała
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Natalia Górska
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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Abstract
The physiological properties of the native, endogenous prion protein (PrP(C)) is a matter of concern, due to its pleiotropic functions and links to neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. In line with our hypothesis that the basic function of PrP(C) is to serve as a cell surface scaffold for the assembly of signaling modules, multiple interactions have been identified of PrP(C) with signaling molecules, including neurotransmitter receptors. We recently reported evidence that PrP(C) may modulate monoaminergic neurotransmission, as well as depressive-like behavior in mice. Here, we discuss how those results, together with a number of other studies, including our previous demonstration that both inflammatory and behavioral stress modulate PrP(C) content in neutrophils, suggest a distributed role of PrP(C) in clinical depression and inflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases. An overarching understanding of the multiple interventions of PrP(C) upon physiological events may both shed light on the pathogenesis of, as well as help the identification of novel therapeutic targets for clinical depression, Prion and Alzheimer's Diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael Linden
- a Instituto de Biofísica da UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
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10
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Abstract
Although initially disregarded compared to prion pathogenesis, the functions exerted by the cellular prion protein PrPC have gained much interest over the past two decades. Research aiming at unraveling PrPC functions started to intensify when it became appreciated that it would give clues as to how it is subverted in the context of prion infection and, more recently, in the context of Alzheimer's disease. It must now be admitted that PrPC is implicated in an incredible variety of biological processes, including neuronal homeostasis, stem cell fate, protection against stress, or cell adhesion. It appears that these diverse roles can all be fulfilled through the involvement of PrPC in cell signaling events. Our aim here is to provide an overview of our current understanding of PrPC functions from the animal to the molecular scale and to highlight some of the remaining gaps that should be addressed in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Théo Z Hirsch
- INSERM UMR 1124, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR 1124, Paris, France
| | - Séverine Martin-Lannerée
- INSERM UMR 1124, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR 1124, Paris, France
| | - Sophie Mouillet-Richard
- INSERM UMR 1124, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR 1124, Paris, France.
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De Mario A, Peggion C, Massimino ML, Viviani F, Castellani A, Giacomello M, Lim D, Bertoli A, Sorgato MC. The prion protein regulates glutamate-mediated Ca 2+ entry and mitochondrial Ca 2+ accumulation in neurons. J Cell Sci 2017; 130:2736-2746. [PMID: 28701513 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.196972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrPC) whose conformational misfolding leads to the production of deadly prions, has a still-unclarified cellular function despite decades of intensive research. Following our recent finding that PrPC limits Ca2+ entry via store-operated Ca2+ channels in neurons, we investigated whether the protein could also control the activity of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). To this end, we compared local Ca2+ movements in primary cerebellar granule neurons and cortical neurons transduced with genetically encoded Ca2+ probes and expressing, or not expressing, PrPC Our investigation demonstrated that PrPC downregulates Ca2+ entry through each specific agonist-stimulated iGluR and after stimulation by glutamate. We found that, although PrP-knockout (KO) mitochondria were displaced from the plasma membrane, glutamate addition resulted in a higher mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in PrP-KO neurons than in their PrPC-expressing counterpart. This was because the increased Ca2+ entry through iGluRs in PrP-KO neurons led to a parallel increase in Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release via ryanodine receptor channels. These data thus suggest that PrPC takes part in the cell apparatus controlling Ca2+ homeostasis, and that PrPC is involved in protecting neurons from toxic Ca2+ overloads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnese De Mario
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Caterina Peggion
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Lina Massimino
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Francesca Viviani
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Angela Castellani
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Marta Giacomello
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Dmitry Lim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Alessandro Bertoli
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Catia Sorgato
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy .,CNR Neuroscience Institute, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
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12
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Salvesen Ø, Reiten MR, Espenes A, Bakkebø MK, Tranulis MA, Ersdal C. LPS-induced systemic inflammation reveals an immunomodulatory role for the prion protein at the blood-brain interface. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:106. [PMID: 28532450 PMCID: PMC5441080 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0879-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The cellular prion protein (PrPC) is an evolutionary conserved protein abundantly expressed not only in the central nervous system but also peripherally including the immune system. A line of Norwegian dairy goats naturally devoid of PrPC (PRNPTer/Ter) provides a novel model for studying PrPC physiology. Methods In order to explore putative roles for PrPC in acute inflammatory responses, we performed a lipopolysaccharide (LPS, Escherichia coli O26:B6) challenge of 16 goats (8 PRNP+/+ and 8 PRNPTer/Ter) and included 10 saline-treated controls (5 of each PRNP genotype). Clinical examinations were performed continuously, and blood samples were collected throughout the trial. Genome-wide transcription profiles of the choroid plexus, which is at the blood-brain interface, and the hippocampus were analyzed by RNA sequencing, and the same tissues were histologically evaluated. Results All LPS-treated goats displayed clinical signs of sickness behavior, which were of significantly (p < 0.01) longer duration in animals without PrPC. In the choroid plexus, a substantial alteration of the transcriptome and activation of Iba1-positive cells were observed. This response included genotype-dependent differential expression of several genes associated with the immune response, such as ISG15, CXCL12, CXCL14, and acute phase proteins, among others. Activation of cytokine-responsive genes was skewed towards a more profound type I interferon response, and a less obvious type II response, in PrPC-deficient goats. The magnitude of gene expression in response to LPS was smaller in the hippocampus than in the choroid plexus. Resting state expression profiles revealed a few differences between the PRNP genotypes. Conclusions Our data suggest that PrPC acts as a modulator of certain pathways of innate immunity signaling, particularly downstream of interferons, and probably contributes to protection of vulnerable tissues against inflammatory damage. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-017-0879-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ø Salvesen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway
| | - M R Reiten
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway
| | - A Espenes
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway
| | - M K Bakkebø
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway
| | - M A Tranulis
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway
| | - C Ersdal
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Sandnes, Norway.
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13
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Abstract
The misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) causes fatal neurodegenerative diseases. Yet PrPC is highly conserved in mammals, suggesting that it exerts beneficial functions preventing its evolutionary elimination. Ablation of PrPC in mice results in well-defined structural and functional alterations in the peripheral nervous system. Many additional phenotypes were ascribed to the lack of PrPC, but some of these were found to arise from genetic artifacts of the underlying mouse models. Here, we revisit the proposed physiological roles of PrPC in the central and peripheral nervous systems and highlight the need for their critical reassessment using new, rigorously controlled animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Angela Wulf
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Assunta Senatore
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Aguzzi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091, Zürich, Switzerland.
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14
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Abstract
Since its discovery the cellular prion protein (encoded by the Prnp gene) has been associated with a large number of functions. The proposed functions rank from basic cellular processes such as cell cycle and survival to neural functions such as behavior and neuroprotection, following a pattern similar to that of Moore's law for electronics. In addition, particular interest is increasing in the participation of Prnp in neurodegeneration. However, in recent years a redefinition of these functions has begun, since examples of previously attributed functions were increasingly re-associated with other proteins. Most of these functions are linked to so-called "Prnp-flanking genes" that are close to the genomic locus of Prnp and which are present in the genome of some Prnp mouse models. In addition, their role in neuroprotection against convulsive insults has been confirmed in recent studies. Lastly, in recent years a large number of models indicating the participation of different domains of the protein in apoptosis have been uncovered. However, after more than 10 years of molecular dissection our view is that the simplest mechanistic model in PrP(C)-mediated cell death should be considered, as Ockham's razor theory suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A del Río
- a Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC) , Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona , Spain.,b Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Inmunology , Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona , Barcelona , Spain.,c Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED) , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Rosalina Gavín
- a Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC) , Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona , Spain.,b Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Inmunology , Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona , Barcelona , Spain.,c Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED) , Barcelona , Spain
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15
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Watanabe SY, Numata S, Iga JI, Kinoshita M, Umehara H, Ishii K, Ohmori T. Gene expression-based biological test for major depressive disorder: an advanced study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2017; 13:535-541. [PMID: 28260899 PMCID: PMC5328599 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s120038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Recently, we could distinguished patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) from nonpsychiatric controls with high accuracy using a panel of five gene expression markers (ARHGAP24, HDAC5, PDGFC, PRNP, and SLC6A4) in leukocyte. In the present study, we examined whether this biological test is able to discriminate patients with MDD from those without MDD, including those with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. PATIENTS AND METHODS We measured messenger ribonucleic acid expression levels of the aforementioned five genes in peripheral leukocytes in 17 patients with schizophrenia and 36 patients with bipolar disorder using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and we combined these expression data with our previous expression data of 25 patients with MDD and 25 controls. Subsequently, a linear discriminant function was developed for use in discriminating between patients with MDD and without MDD. RESULTS This expression panel was able to segregate patients with MDD from those without MDD with a sensitivity and specificity of 64% and 67.9%, respectively. CONCLUSION Further research to identify MDD-specific markers is needed to improve the performance of this biological test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ya Watanabe
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima
| | - Shusuke Numata
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima
| | - Jun-Ichi Iga
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Molecules and Function, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime
| | - Makoto Kinoshita
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima
| | - Hidehiro Umehara
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima
| | - Kazuo Ishii
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Ohmori
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima
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16
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Atkinson CJ, Zhang K, Munn AL, Wiegmans A, Wei MQ. Prion protein scrapie and the normal cellular prion protein. Prion 2016; 10:63-82. [PMID: 26645475 PMCID: PMC4981215 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2015.1110293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Prions are infectious proteins and over the past few decades, some prions have become renowned for their causative role in several neurodegenerative diseases in animals and humans. Since their discovery, the mechanisms and mode of transmission and molecular structure of prions have begun to be established. There is, however, still much to be elucidated about prion diseases, including the development of potential therapeutic strategies for treatment. The significance of prion disease is discussed here, including the categories of human and animal prion diseases, disease transmission, disease progression and the development of symptoms and potential future strategies for treatment. Furthermore, the structure and function of the normal cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) and its importance in not only in prion disease development, but also in diseases such as cancer and Alzheimer's disease will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J. Atkinson
- Division of Molecular and Gene Therapies, Menzies Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Kai Zhang
- Division of Molecular and Gene Therapies, Menzies Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Alan L. Munn
- Laboratory of Yeast Cell Biology, Molecular Basis of Disease Program, Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Adrian Wiegmans
- Tumour Microenvironment Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Australia
| | - Ming Q. Wei
- Division of Molecular and Gene Therapies, Menzies Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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17
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Schmitz M, Zafar S, Silva CJ, Zerr I. Behavioral abnormalities in prion protein knockout mice and the potential relevance of PrP(C) for the cytoskeleton. Prion 2015; 8:381-6. [PMID: 25517431 DOI: 10.4161/19336896.2014.983746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) is a highly conserved protein, which is anchored to the outer surface of the plasma membrane. Even though its physiological function has already been investigated in different cell or mouse models where PrP(C) expression is either upregulated or depleted, its exact physiological role in a mammalian organism remains elusive. Recent studies indicate that PrP(C) has multiple functions and is involved in cognition, learning, anxiety, locomotion, depression, offensive aggression and nest building behavior. While young animals (3 months of age) show only marginal abnormalities, most of the deficits become apparent as the animals age, which might indicate its role in neurodegeneration or neuroprotection. However, the exact biochemical mechanism and signal transduction pathways involving PrP(C) are only gradually becoming clearer. We report the observations made in different studies using different Prnp0/0 mouse models and propose that PrP(C) plays an important role in the regulation of the cytoskeleton and associated proteins. In particular, we showed a nocodazole treatment influenced colocalization of PrP(C) and α tubulin 1. In addition, we confirmed the observed deficits in nest building using a different backcrossed Prnp0/0 mouse line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Schmitz
- a Department of Neurology ; University Medical Center Göttingen, and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) ; Göttingen , Germany
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18
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Carulla P, Llorens F, Matamoros-Angles A, Aguilar-Calvo P, Espinosa JC, Gavín R, Ferrer I, Legname G, Torres JM, del Río JA. Involvement of PrP(C) in kainate-induced excitotoxicity in several mouse strains. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11971. [PMID: 26155834 PMCID: PMC4648388 DOI: 10.1038/srep11971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) has been associated with a plethora of cellular functions ranging from cell cycle to neuroprotection. Mice lacking PrP(C) show an increased susceptibility to epileptic seizures; the protein, then, is neuroprotective. However, lack of experimental reproducibility has led to considering the possibility that other factors besides PrP(C) deletion, such as the genetic background of mice or the presence of so-called "Prnp flanking genes", might contribute to the reported susceptibility. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of seizure-susceptibility using characterized Prnp(+/+) and Prnp(0/0) mice of B6129, B6.129, 129/Ola or FVB/N genetic backgrounds. Our study indicates that PrP(C) plays a role in neuroprotection in KA-treated cells and mice. For this function, PrP(C) should contain the aa32-93 region and needs to be linked to the membrane. In addition, some unidentified "Prnp-flanking genes" play a role parallel to PrP(C) in the KA-mediated responses in B6129 and B6.129 Prnp(0/0) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Carulla
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Franc Llorens
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain [4] German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch Str. 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreu Matamoros-Angles
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Juan Carlos Espinosa
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosalina Gavín
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isidre Ferrer
- 1] Institut de Neuropatologia, IDIBELL-Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain [2] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Juan Maria Torres
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A del Río
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
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Beckman D, Santos LE, Americo TA, Ledo JH, de Mello FG, Linden R. Prion Protein Modulates Monoaminergic Systems and Depressive-like Behavior in Mice. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:20488-98. [PMID: 26152722 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.666156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We sought to examine interactions of the prion protein (PrP(C)) with monoaminergic systems due to: the role of PrP(C) in both Prion and Alzheimer diseases, which include clinical depression among their symptoms, the implication of monoamines in depression, and the hypothesis that PrP(C) serves as a scaffold for signaling systems. To that effect we compared both behavior and monoaminergic markers in wild type (WT) and PrP(C)-null (PrP(-/-)) mice. PrP(-/-) mice performed poorly when compared with WT in forced swimming, tail suspension, and novelty suppressed feeding tests, typical of depressive-like behavior, but not in the control open field nor rotarod motor tests; cyclic AMP responses to stimulation of D1 receptors by dopamine was selectively impaired in PrP(-/-) mice, and responses to serotonin, but not to norepinephrine, also differed between genotypes. Contents of dopamine, tyrosine hydroxylase, and the 5-HT5A serotonin receptor were increased in the cerebral cortex of PrP(-/-), as compared with WT mice. Microscopic colocalization, as well as binding in overlay assays were found of PrP(C) with both the 5HT5A and D1, but not D4 receptors. The data are consistent with the scaffolding of monoaminergic signaling modules by PrP(C), and may help understand the pathogenesis of clinical depression and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jose H Ledo
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica da UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brasil
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20
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Onodera T, Sakudo A, Tsubone H, Itohara S. Review of studies that have used knockout mice to assess normal function of prion protein under immunological or pathophysiological stress. Microbiol Immunol 2015; 58:361-74. [PMID: 24866463 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Deletion of cellular isoform of prion protein (PrP(C)) increases neuronal predisposition to damage by modulating apoptosis and the negative consequences of oxidative stress. In vivo studies have demonstrated that PrP(C)-deficient mice are more prone to seizure, depression, and induction of epilepsy and experience extensive cerebral damage following ischemic challenge or viral infection. In addition, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of PrP(C) reduces brain damage in rat models of cerebral ischemia. In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, PrP(C)-deficient mice reportedly have a more aggressive disease onset and less clinical improvement during the chronic phase than wild-type mice mice. In mice given oral dextran sulfate, PrP(C) has a potential protective role against inflammatory bowel disease. PrP(C)-deficient mice demonstrate significantly greater increases in blood glucose concentrations after intraperitoneal injection of glucose than wild-type mice. Further in vivo challenges to PrP gene-deficient models and conditional knockout models with siRNA and in vivo administration of PrP-ligating agents may assist in refining knowledge of the lymphoid function of PrP(C) and predicting the effects of anti-PrP treatment on the immune system. Together, these findings indicate that PrP(C) may have multiple neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory roles, which explains why this protein is so widely expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Onodera
- Research Center for Food Safety, School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657
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21
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Hamilton A, Zamponi GW, Ferguson SSG. Glutamate receptors function as scaffolds for the regulation of β-amyloid and cellular prion protein signaling complexes. Mol Brain 2015; 8:18. [PMID: 25888324 PMCID: PMC4395978 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-015-0107-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects 36 million people worldwide, but currently has no effective treatment options. One of the original hallmarks of AD are plaques comprised of beta amyloid (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles comprised of phosphorylated Tau protein. However, it is soluble oligomeric Aβ which is more closely correlated with cognitive decline and is therefore considered to be the neurotoxic species. Oligomeric Aβ has recently been shown to form complexes with the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored membrane protein, cellular prion protein (PrP(c)), and these complexes are believed to play an important role in the progression of AD pathogenesis. Glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter is responsible for mediating learning and memory under normal physiological conditions. However, the dysregulation of glutamatergic signaling has also been implicated in a number of neurodegenerative diseases including AD. Glutamate acts via both ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR), each of which have been implicated in AD. There is now growing evidence to suggest that mGluR5 may contribute the AD pathogenesis by acting as scaffolds for the PrP(c)/Aβ oligomer complex, enabling the propagation of neurotoxic signaling in AD. In addition, PrP(c) and Aβ oligomer signaling via NMDARs may also contribute to AD pathology. The current review overviews our current understanding of the role of PrP(c) and Aβ oligomers in regulating glutamate receptor signaling, as well as highlights the importance of understanding these signaling complexes to develop more effective therapeutic strategies to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Hamilton
- J. Allyn Taylor Centre for Cell Biology, Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, 100 Perth Dr, London, Ontario, N6A 5 K8, Canada.
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Gerald W Zamponi
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Stephen S G Ferguson
- J. Allyn Taylor Centre for Cell Biology, Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, 100 Perth Dr, London, Ontario, N6A 5 K8, Canada.
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Halliez S, Passet B, Martin-Lannerée S, Hernandez-Rapp J, Laude H, Mouillet-Richard S, Vilotte JL, Béringue V. To develop with or without the prion protein. Front Cell Dev Biol 2014; 2:58. [PMID: 25364763 PMCID: PMC4207017 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2014.00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The deletion of the cellular form of the prion protein (PrPC) in mouse, goat, and cattle has no drastic phenotypic consequence. This stands in apparent contradiction with PrPC quasi-ubiquitous expression and conserved primary and tertiary structures in mammals, and its pivotal role in neurodegenerative diseases such as prion and Alzheimer's diseases. In zebrafish embryos, depletion of PrP ortholog leads to a severe loss-of-function phenotype. This raises the question of a potential role of PrPC in the development of all vertebrates. This view is further supported by the early expression of the PrPC encoding gene (Prnp) in many tissues of the mouse embryo, the transient disruption of a broad number of cellular pathways in early Prnp−/− mouse embryos, and a growing body of evidence for PrPC involvement in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation in various types of mammalian stem cells and progenitors. Finally, several studies in both zebrafish embryos and in mammalian cells and tissues in formation support a role for PrPC in cell adhesion, extra-cellular matrix interactions and cytoskeleton. In this review, we summarize and compare the different models used to decipher PrPC functions at early developmental stages during embryo- and organo-genesis and discuss their relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Halliez
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, U892 Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Bruno Passet
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR1313 Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Séverine Martin-Lannerée
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR-S1124 Paris, France ; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S1124 Paris, France
| | - Julia Hernandez-Rapp
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR-S1124 Paris, France ; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S1124 Paris, France
| | - Hubert Laude
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, U892 Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Sophie Mouillet-Richard
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR-S1124 Paris, France ; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S1124 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Luc Vilotte
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR1313 Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Vincent Béringue
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, U892 Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires Jouy-en-Josas, France
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23
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Black SAG, Stys PK, Zamponi GW, Tsutsui S. Cellular prion protein and NMDA receptor modulation: protecting against excitotoxicity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2014; 2:45. [PMID: 25364752 PMCID: PMC4207032 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2014.00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is well established that misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into the β-sheet-rich, aggregated scrapie conformation (PrPSc) causes a variety of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), the physiological roles of PrPC are still incompletely understood. There is accumulating evidence describing the roles of PrPC in neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Recently, we identified a functional regulation of NMDA receptors by PrPC that involves formation of a physical protein complex between these proteins. Excessive NMDA receptor activity during conditions such as ischemia mediates enhanced Ca2+ entry into cells and contributes to excitotoxic neuronal death. In addition, NMDA receptors and/or PrPC play critical roles in neuroinflammation and glial cell toxicity. Inhibition of NMDA receptor activity protects against PrPSc-induced neuronal death. Moreover, in mice lacking PrPC, infarct size is increased after focal cerebral ischemia, and absence of PrPC increases susceptibility of neurons to NMDA receptor-dependent death. Recently, PrPC was found to be a receptor for oligomeric beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, suggesting a role for PrPC in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our recent findings suggest that Aβ peptides enhance NMDA receptor current by perturbing the normal copper- and PrPC-dependent regulation of these receptors. Here, we review evidence highlighting a role for PrPC in preventing NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity and inflammation. There is a need for more detailed molecular characterization of PrPC-mediated regulation of NMDA receptors, such as determining which NMDA receptor subunits mediate pathogenic effects upon loss of PrPC-mediated regulation and identifying PrPC binding site(s) on the receptor. This knowledge will allow development of novel therapeutic interventions for not only TSEs, but also for AD and other neurodegenerative disorders involving dysfunction of PrPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie A G Black
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Peter K Stys
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Gerald W Zamponi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Shigeki Tsutsui
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
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Büdefeld T, Majer A, Jerin A, Majdic G. Deletion of the prion gene Prnp affects offensive aggression in mice. Behav Brain Res 2014; 266:216-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Schmitz M, Greis C, Ottis P, Silva CJ, Schulz-Schaeffer WJ, Wrede A, Koppe K, Onisko B, Requena JR, Govindarajan N, Korth C, Fischer A, Zerr I. Loss of prion protein leads to age-dependent behavioral abnormalities and changes in cytoskeletal protein expression. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 50:923-36. [PMID: 24604355 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8655-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a highly conserved protein whose exact physiological role remains elusive. In the present study, we investigated age-dependent behavioral abnormalities in PrPC-knockout (Prnp0/0) mice and wild-type (WT) controls. Prnp0/0 mice showed age-dependent behavioral deficits in memory performance, associative learning, basal anxiety, and nest building behavior. Using a hypothesis-free quantitative proteomic investigation, we found that loss of PrPC affected the levels of neurofilament proteins in an age-dependent manner. In order to understand the biochemical basis of these observations, we analyzed the phosphorylation status of neurofilament heavy chain (NF-H). We found a reduction in NF-H phosphorylation in both Prnp0/0 mice and in PrPC-deficient cells. The expression of Fyn and phospho-Fyn, a potential regulator for NF phosphorylation, was associated with PrPC ablation. The number of β-tubulin III-positive neurons in the hippocampus was diminished in Prnp0/0 mice relative to WT mice. These data indicate that PrPC plays an important role in cytoskeletal organization, brain function, and age-related neuroprotection. Our work represents the first direct biochemical link between these proteins and the observed behavioral phenotypes.
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Nuvolone M, Kana V, Hutter G, Sakata D, Mortin-Toth SM, Russo G, Danska JS, Aguzzi A. SIRPα polymorphisms, but not the prion protein, control phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:2539-52. [PMID: 24145514 PMCID: PMC3832919 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20131274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Prnp(-/-) mice lack the prion protein PrP(C) and are resistant to prion infections, but variable phenotypes have been reported in Prnp(-/-) mice and the physiological function of PrP(C) remains poorly understood. Here we examined a cell-autonomous phenotype, inhibition of macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, previously reported in Prnp(-/-) mice. Using formal genetic, genomic, and immunological analyses, we found that the regulation of phagocytosis previously ascribed to PrP(C) is instead controlled by a linked locus encoding the signal regulatory protein α (Sirpa). These findings indicate that control of phagocytosis was previously misattributed to the prion protein and illustrate the requirement for stringent approaches to eliminate confounding effects of flanking genes in studies modeling human disease in gene-targeted mice. The plethora of seemingly unrelated functions attributed to PrP(C) suggests that additional phenotypes reported in Prnp(-/-) mice may actually relate to Sirpa or other genetic confounders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Nuvolone
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, CH-8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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Llorens F, Ferrer I, del Río JA. Gene expression resulting from PrPC ablation and PrPC overexpression in murine and cellular models. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:413-23. [PMID: 23949728 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8529-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) plays a key role in prion diseases when it converts to the pathogenic form scrapie prion protein. Increasing knowledge of its participation in prion infection contrasts with the elusive and controversial data regarding its physiological role probably related to its pleiotropy, cell-specific functions, and cellular-specific milieu. Multiple approaches have been made to the increasing understanding of the molecular mechanisms and cellular functions modulated by PrP(C) at the transcriptomic and proteomic levels. Gene expression analyses have been made in several mouse and cellular models with regulated expression of PrP(C) resulting in PrP(C) ablation or PrP(C) overexpression. These analyses support previous functional data and have yielded clues about new potential functions. However, experiments on animal models have shown moderate and varied results which are difficult to interpret. Moreover, studies in cell cultures correlate little with in vivo counterparts. Yet, both animal and cell models have provided some insights on how to proceed in the future by using more refined methods and selected functional experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franc Llorens
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital Bellvitge-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain,
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Massimino ML, Redaelli M, Bertoli A, Sorgato MC, Mucignat-caretta C. Altered behavioral aspects of aged mice lacking the cellular prion protein. Physiol Behav 2013; 119:86-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bahi A, Dreyer JL. Hippocampus-specific deletion of tissue plasminogen activator "tPA" in adult mice impairs depression- and anxiety-like behaviors. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2012; 22:672-82. [PMID: 22377193 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Revised: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety and depression are multifactorial disorders that have become prominent health problems all over the world. Neurotrophic factors have emerged underlying pathogenesis of these diseases. Although a number of studies indicate that the hippocampus-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may be involved in these psychiatric illnesses, little is known about the molecular mediators of these disorders. In this study we further investigate the role of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a serine protease involved in pro-BDNF cleavage to BDNF, in depression and anxiety-like behaviors in adult mice. To address this issue, we investigated the effect of hippocampus tPA manipulation, using viral vectors, on anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, including the marble burying test (MBT), elevated plus maze (EPM), tail suspension test (TST), novelty suppressed feeding (NSF) and forced swim test (FST). Our results showed that tPA knock-down - using lentiviral vectors expressing specific short hairpin RNAs (LV-shRNA) - increased the number of buried marbles together with the digging time in the MBT and decreased the time spent in open the arms of an EPM. In addition, tPA-knock down in the hippocampus increased immobility in the FST and TST, and increased time to feed in the NSF test. These effects were reversed when tPA-over-expressing vectors (LV-tPA) were injected in the hippocampus. We also found that BDNF protein levels were elevated in the hippocampus of mice receiving tPA-expressing vectors. Together, our results imply that tPA manipulation may provide an effective therapeutic intervention for depression and anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amine Bahi
- Department of Anatomy, Tawam Medical Campus, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.
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Abstract
Knowledge of the natural roles of cellular prion protein (PrP (C) ) is essential to an understanding of the molecular basis of prion pathologies. This GPI-anchored protein has been described in synaptic contacts, and loss of its synaptic function in complex systems may contribute to the synaptic loss and neuronal degeneration observed in prionopathy. In addition, Prnp knockout mice show enhanced susceptibility to several excitotoxic insults, GABAA receptor-mediated fast inhibition was weakened, LTP was modified and cellular stress increased. Although little is known about how PrP (C) exerts its function at the synapse or the downstream events leading to PrP (C) -mediated neuroprotection against excitotoxic insults, PrP (C) has recently been reported to interact with two glutamate receptor subunits (NR2D and GluR6/7). In both cases the presence of PrP (C) blocks the neurotoxicity induced by NMDA and Kainate respectively. Furthermore, signals for seizure and neuronal cell death in response to Kainate in Prnp knockout mouse are associated with JNK3 activity, through enhancing the interaction of GluR6 with PSD-95. In combination with previous data, these results shed light on the molecular mechanisms behind the role of PrP (C) in excitotoxicity. Future experimental approaches are suggested and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franc Llorens
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology Group, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Stys PK, You H, Zamponi GW. Copper-dependent regulation of NMDA receptors by cellular prion protein: implications for neurodegenerative disorders. J Physiol 2012; 590:1357-68. [PMID: 22310309 PMCID: PMC3382327 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.225276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors mediate a wide range of important nervous system functions. Conversely, excessive NMDA receptor activity leads to cytotoxic calcium overload and neuronal damage in a wide variety of CNS disorders. It is well established that NMDA receptors are tightly regulated by a number of cell signalling pathways. Recently, it has been shown that NMDA receptor activity is modulated by cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) in a copper-dependent manner. Here we give an overview of the current state of knowledge concerning the novel concept of potent modulation of this receptor's kinetics by copper ions, and the interplay between NMDA receptors and PrP(C) in the context of neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, pain and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter K Stys
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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Abstract
Cellular prion protein (PrPC) inhibits N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Since NMDA receptors play an important role in the transmission of pain signals in the dorsal horn of spinal cord, we thus wanted to determine if PrPC null mice show a reduced threshold for various pain behaviours. We compared nociceptive thresholds between wild type and PrPC null mice in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain, in the presence and the absence of a NMDA receptor antagonist. 2-3 months old male PrPC null mice exhibited an MK-801 sensitive decrease in the paw withdrawal threshold in response both mechanical and thermal stimuli. PrPC null mice also exhibited significantly longer licking/biting time during both the first and second phases of formalin-induced inflammation of the paw, which was again prevented by treatment of the mice with MK-801, and responded more strongly to glutamate injection into the paw. Compared to wild type animals, PrPC null mice also exhibited a significantly greater nociceptive response (licking/biting) after intrathecal injection of NMDA. Sciatic nerve ligation resulted in MK-801 sensitive neuropathic pain in wild-type mice, but did not further augment the basal increase in pain behaviour observed in the null mice, suggesting that mice lacking PrPC may already be in a state of tonic central sensitization. Altogether, our data indicate that PrPC exerts a critical role in modulating nociceptive transmission at the spinal cord level, and fit with the concept of NMDA receptor hyperfunction in the absence of PrPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinicius M Gadotti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N 4N1, Canada
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