Expression of histone acetyltransferases was down-regulated in poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1-deficient murine cells

Effect of ginseng therapy on diabetes and its chronic complications: lessons learned

Ginseng played a significant role in the management of diabetes in China and in other Asian countries for a long period of time. It has a large number of pharmacological properties and is relatively free from adverse effects. As a part of Ontario Ginseng Research and Innovation Consortium, we investigated the effects of ginseng extract on diabetes and its complications. We demonstrated large number of beneficial effects of ginseng therapy and showed that these effects are possibly mediated through its antioxidant properties. Thus ginseng may lend itself as a relatively safe and inexpensive adjuvant treatment for diabetes and chronic diabetic complications.

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) prevents glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated endothelial abnormalities

PURPOSE

Ginseng (Araliaceae), demonstrates widespread biological effects because of its purported antioxidant and other properties. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of American ginseng root extract on glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated oxidative damage to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

METHODS

Following pretreatment with various concentrations of ginseng (alcoholic extract), HUVECs were incubated with various concentrations of d-glucose ranging from 5 to 25mmol/l for 24h. l-Glucose was used at a concentration of 25mmol/l as a control.

RESULTS

Glucose-induced oxidative stress detected by intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation, superoxide anion generation and DNA damage in HUVECs were significantly prevented by ginseng. Treatment of HUVECs with ginseng further led to significant prevention of glucose-induced NF-κB activation. Glucose-induced increase in fibronectin (FN), EDB(+)FN (a splice variant of FN), endothelin-1 (ET-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNAs and protein levels were also prevented by ginseng treatment.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that American ginseng prevented glucose-induced damage in the HUVECs through its antioxidant properties.

15-Deoxy-Delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) impairs the functions of histone acetyltransferases through their insolubilization in cells

The cyclopentenonic prostaglandin 15-deoxy-Delta(12,14)-PG J(2) (15d-PGJ(2)) is a metabolite derived from PGD(2). Although 15d-PGJ(2) has been demonstrated to be a potent ligand for peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma), the functions are not fully understood. In order to examine the effect of 15d-PGJ(2) on histone acetyltransferases (HATs), several lines of cell including mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells were exposed to 15d-PGJ(2). Three types of HAT, p300, CREB-binding protein (CBP), and p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF), selectively disappeared from the soluble fraction in time- and dose-dependent manners. Inversely, HATs in the insoluble fraction increased, suggesting their conformational changes. The decrease in the soluble form of HATs resulted in the attenuation of NF-kappaB-, p53-, and heat shock factor-dependent reporter gene expressions, implying that the insoluble HATs are inactive. The resultant insoluble PCAF and p300 seemed to be digested by proteasome, because proteasome inhibitors caused the accumulation of insoluble HATs. Taken together, these results indicate that 15d-PGJ(2) attenuates some gene expressions that require HATs. This inhibitory action of 15d-PGJ(2) on the function of HATs was independent of PPARgamma, because PPARgamma agonists could not mimick 15d-PGJ(2) and PPARgamma antagonists did not inhibit 15d-PGJ(2).

Oxidative stress-induced, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-dependent upregulation of ET-1 expression in chronic diabetic complications

Hyperglycemia in diabetes induces increased endothelin-1 (ET-1) production in the retina, kidney, and heart that may lead to hemodynamic impairment, permeability alteration, and increased extracellular matrix (ECM) protein production. Chronically elevated blood glucose levels may cause oxidative stress in these target tissues of diabetic complications. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is a nuclear enzyme activated by DNA strand breaks due to oxidative stress. We investigated the role of PARP in regulating ET-1 expression and ET-1-induced abnormalities in the targets organs of diabetic complications. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with streptozotocin to induce diabetes. Once diabetes was established, half of the diabetic rats were randomly chosen to receive PARP inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide for 4 months. In a second set of experiments, PARP-/- mice and their controls were fed for 2 months with either a normal rodent diet or a 30% galactose diet to induce a normoinsulinemic hyperhexosemic state. Tissues harvested at the conclusion of both experiments were then subjected to real-time RT-PCR analysis for mRNA expression and immunohistochemical assessment of oxidative stress. In both experiments, the hyperhexosemic state upregulated expression of ET-1 mRNA in the retina, kidney, and heart. Furthermore, upregulation of ET-1-dependent ECM transcripts, such as fibronectin and extradomain B-containing fibronectin, was noted in all tissues. These tissues also demonstrated oxidative stress, as evidenced by the presence of nuclei positive for 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine. In contrast, inhibition of PARP, either through a chemical means in the diabetic rats or by genetic manipulation in the galactose-fed animals, prevented both oxidative stress and hyperhexosemia-induced upregulation of these genes. These results suggest that, in diabetes, oxidative stress and PARP activation may produce their effects through ET-1. Hence, blockade of such pathways may constitute potential adjuvant treatment modalities in chronic diabetic complications.

PARP activation and the alteration of vasoactive factors and extracellular matrix protein in retina and kidney in diabetes

AIMS

The development of diabetic complications is associated with increased oxidative stress which may damage DNA leading to the activation of nuclear enzyme poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). PARP overactivation may further exacerbate the oxidative state of the cell through its consumption of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. In diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy, early characteristic features include increased production of vasoactive factors such as endothelin 1 (ET-1) and increased synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins such as fibronectin (FN) and its splice variant extra domain B containing (EDB(+)) FN. We investigated the role of PARP in the development of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy.

METHODS

Two models of diabetic complications were used. PARP-1 knockout mice and their respective wild type controls were fed a 30% galactose diet for 2 months. The rats were given injections of PARP inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide (30 mg/kg/day).

RESULTS

Analysis of the retinal and kidney tissues showed hyperhexosemia-induced oxidative stress and increased expression of ET-1, FN and EDB(+) FN in association with increased transcriptional co-activator p300 along with p300-dependent transcription factors, myocyte enhancing factors 2A and 2C. Furthermore, we showed increased PARP expression in the kidneys and retina of the diabetic rats. PARP blockade in both animal models prevented these hyperhexosemia-induced effects.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggests that hyperhexosemia and diabetes causes upregulation of ET-1, FN and EDB(+) FN at the transcriptional level in the retina and kidney via a signaling pathway mediated by PARP and an epigenetic mechanism involving p300 and MEF2 transcription factors. Understanding these mechanisms is important in identifying novel treatment targets.

Cellular signaling and potential new treatment targets in diabetic retinopathy

Dysfunction and death of microvascular cells and imbalance between the production and the degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins are a characteristic feature of diabetic retinopathy (DR). Glucose-induced biochemical alterations in the vascular endothelial cells may activate a cascade of signaling pathways leading to increased production of ECM proteins and cellular dysfunction/death. Chronic diabetes leads to the activation of a number of signaling proteins including protein kinase C, protein kinase B, and mitogen-activated protein kinases. These signaling cascades are activated in response to hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress, polyol pathway, and advanced glycation end product formation among others. The aberrant signaling pathways ultimately lead to activation of transcription factors such as nuclear factor-κB and activating protein-1. The activity of these transcription factors is also regulated by epigenetic mechanisms through transcriptional coactivator p300. These complex signaling pathways may be involved in glucose-induced alterations of endothelial cell phenotype leading to the production of increased ECM proteins and vasoactive effector molecules causing functional and structural changes in the microvasculature. Understanding of such mechanistic pathways will help to develop future adjuvant therapies for diabetic retinopathy.

Integrin engagement increases histone H3 acetylation and reduces histone H1 association with DNA in murine lung endothelial cells

Engagement of integrin cell adhesion receptors in mouse lung endothelial cells induces global sensitivity of DNA to nuclease digestion, reflecting alterations in chromatin structure. These structural changes may contribute to the antigenotoxic effects of integrin engagement in lung endothelium. Because histone acetylation and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation modulate chromatin structure, we investigated the effects of beta1 integrin engagement with antibody on these post-translational modifications and the presence of histones at discrete DNA sequences in the mouse lung endothelial cell genome using chromatin immunoprecipitation. Integrin engagement increased acetylation of core histone H3. The presence of acetylated histone H3 at intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) promoters, and a nonpromoter sequence was also increased. As with integrin engagement, the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A caused global hypersensitivity of DNA to nuclease digestion and induced acetylation of histone H3 and its coimmunoprecipitation with VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 promoters and nonpromoter DNA. In contrast to acetyl-histone H3, the association of linker histone H1 with specific DNA sequences was either reduced or unaffected by integrin engagement and trichostatin A. Although integrin engagement and trichostatin A treatment did not affect histone H1 poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, deletion of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 increased core histone H3 acetylation and increased its level at the iNOS promoter while decreasing the amount of histone H1. The results suggest that integrin engagement, as well as trichostatin A and PARP-1 deletion, regulate chromatin structure via core histone H3 acetylation and reduced linker histone H1-DNA association.

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 is required for integration of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genome near centromeric alphoid DNA in human and murine cells

This study examined the efficiency of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integration in poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 (PARP-1)-deficient murine cells and in human cell lines transfected with small interfering RNA against PARP-1 (PARP-1 siRNA). To semi-quantify the amount of integrated HIV-1 genome, real-time nested PCR was carried out using primers specific for Alu and alphoid DNA combined with primers for the HIV-1 genome. The results showed that the integration efficiency of the HIV-1 genome near Alu DNA, which is randomly distributed in the chromosome, is reduced in PARP-1-deficient murine cells, but not in PARP-1 siRNA-transfected human cells. By contrast, the integration efficiency of the HIV-1 genome near alphoid DNA, which is localized in the centromere region, is significantly reduced in PARP-1-deficient murine cells and in PARP-1 siRNA-transfected human cells. These results suggest that PARP-1 is required for HIV-1 integration near the centromere region both in human and murine cells.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and the therapeutic effects of its inhibitors

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are involved in the regulation of many cellular functions. Three consequences of the activation of PARP1, which is the main isoform of the PARP family, are particularly important for drug development: first, its role in DNA repair; second, its capacity to deplete cellular energetic pools, which culminates in cell dysfunction and necrosis; and third, its capacity to promote the transcription of pro-inflammatory genes. Consequently, pharmacological inhibitors of PARP have the potential to enhance the cytotoxicity of certain DNA-damaging anticancer drugs, reduce parenchymal cell necrosis (for example, in stroke or myocardial infarction) and downregulate multiple simultaneous pathways of inflammation and tissue injury (for example, in circulatory shock, colitis or diabetic complications). The first ultrapotent novel PARP inhibitors have now entered human clinical trials. This article presents an overview of the principal pathophysiological pathways and mechanisms that are governed by PARP, followed by the main structures and therapeutic actions of various classes of novel PARP inhibitors.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase is involved in the development of diabetic retinopathy via regulation of nuclear factor-kappaB

The current study investigated the role of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) in the development of diabetic retinopathy. Activity of PARP was increased in whole retina and in endothelial cells and pericytes of diabetic rats. Administration of PJ-34 (a potent PARP inhibitor) for 9 months to diabetic rats significantly inhibited the diabetes-induced death of retinal microvascular cells and the development of early lesions of diabetic retinopathy, including acellular capillaries and pericyte ghosts. To further investigate how PARP activation leads to cell death in diabetes, we investigated the possibility that PARP acts as a coactivator of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) in the retinal cells. In bovine retinal endothelial cells (BRECs), PARP interacted directly with both subunits of NF-kappaB (p50 and p65). More PARP was complexed to the p50 subunit in elevated glucose concentration (25 mmol/l) than at 5 mmol/l glucose. PJ-34 blocked the hyperglycemia-induced increase in NF-kappaB activation in BRECs. PJ-34 also inhibited diabetes-induced increase expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1, a product of NF-kappaB-dependent transcription in retina, and subsequent leukostasis. Inhibition of PARP or NF-kappaB inhibited the hyperglycemia (25 mmol/l glucose)-induced cell death in retinal endothelial cells. Thus, PARP activation plays an important role in the diabetes-induced death of retinal capillary cells, at least in part via its regulation of NF-kappaB.

RNA interference directed against Poly(ADP-Ribose) polymerase 1 efficiently suppresses human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human cells

We established small interfering RNA (siRNA) directed against poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) that effectively reduces the expression of PARP-1 in two human cell lines. Established siRNA against PARP-1 significantly suppressed human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication, as well as the activation of the integrated HIV-1 long terminal repeat promoter. These results indicate that PARP-1 is required for efficient HIV-1 replication in human cells. We propose that PARP-1 may serve as a cellular target for RNA interference-mediated gene silencing to inhibit HIV-1 replication.