RhoC is essential for TGF-beta1-induced invasive capacity of rat ascites hepatoma cells

Inflammatory breast cancer biomarkers and biology

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a unique breast cancer with a highly virulent course and low 5- and 10-year survival rates. Even though it only accounts for 1-5% of breast cancers it is estimated to account for 10% of breast cancer deaths annually in the United States. The accuracy of diagnosis and classification of this unique cancer is a major concern within the medical community. Early molecular and biological studies incidentally included IBC samples with other conventional breast cancers and were not informative as to the unique nature of the disease. Subsequent molecular studies that focused specifically on IBC demonstrated that IBC has a unique biology different from other forms of breast cancer. Additionally, a handful of unique signature genes that are hallmarks of IBC have also been suggested. Further understanding of IBC biology can help with diagnosis and treatment of the disease. The current article reviews the history and highlights of IBC studies.

α-Fetoprotein (AFP)-L3% and transforming growth factor B1 (TGFB1) in prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma after radiofrequency

Background

Numerous hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) biomarkers have been assessed in the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC. The aim of this study was to assess the value of α-fetoprotein (AFP)-L3% and transforming growth factor B1 (TGFB1) as prognostic markers in hepatocellular carcinoma after radiofrequency ablation (RFA). This observational cohort study included 40 patients with HCC diagnosed by triphasic computed tomography criteria indicated for radiofrequency ablation. Serum AFP, AFP-L3%, and TGFB1 were measured in all patients before and 3 months after radiofrequency ablation.

Results

Statistically significant lower levels of TGFB1, AFP, and AFP-L3% were noted in the HCC patients after radiofrequency ablation. Significant lower levels of TGFB1, AFP, and AFP-L3% were found in the no recurrence group in comparison to the recurrence group. The cutoff value of TGFB1 > 56.87 ng/mL, AFP > 74.9 ng/mL, and AFP-L3% > 8.5% was the best in the discrimination of tumor recurrence with sensitivity of 85.7%, 57.1%, and 100%; specificity of 54.6%, 84.9%, and 100%; and diagnostic accuracy of 64.5%, 69%, and 100%, respectively.

Conclusion

TGFB1 and AFP-L3% are good prognostic markers for HCC. They could be used to monitor the response of HCC to treatment.

Expression And Biological Interaction Network Of RHOC For Hepatic Carcinoma With Metastasis In PBMC Samples

Objectives

Hepatic carcinoma with metastasis remains incurable, and clinical diagnostic methods lacked adequate sensitivity and specificity. Therefore, seeking effectively diagnostic biomarkers is still essential for it. RHOC was reported to be linked to metastasis of hepatic carcinoma. However, almost all of the studies used tissues as detection samples, which was not ideal for clinical course minoring. Therefore, here, it was aimed to use PBMC samples that were not only easily accessible but also minimally invasive to determine the expression and biological interaction network of RHOC for hepatic carcinoma with metastasis.

Methods

PBMC samples were isolated. Then, RNA-seq was performed to identify the DEGs between hepatic carcinoma with metastasis and hepatic carcinoma with solitary tumor. Subsequently, q-RT-PCR was used to verify the expression level of RHOC. Finally, bioinformatic analysis was used to present the biological interaction network of RHOC for hepatic carcinoma with metastasis in PBMC samples.

Results

The results of both RNA-seq and q-RT-PCR showed that the expression level of RHOC was significantly higher in the PBMC samples of hepatic carcinoma with metastasis than in those of hepatic carcinoma with solitary tumor. By using variety of bioinformatic analysis platforms, in PBMCs, 18 co-expression genes with RHOC were identified and their interaction network showed that MYL9 and RHOC had the highest edge evidence, and were involved in some cell migration-related pathways.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that RHOC in PBMCs could be potentially minimally invasive indicators for the diagnosis and clinical course supervision of hepatic carcinoma with metastasis, and its biological interaction network determined based on bioinformatic methods would lay a foundation for further study of the role of RHOC in tumor invasion and metastasis.

High FMNL3 expression promotes nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell metastasis: role in TGF-β1-induced epithelia-to-mesenchymal transition

Formin-like 3 (FMNL3) plays a crucial role in cytoskeletal mediation and is potentially a biomarker for cell migration; however, its role in cancer metastasis remains unknown. In this study, we found elevated FMNL3 protein expression in clinical nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tissues. FMNL3 expression positively correlated to the clinical stage, T (tumour), N (lymph node metastasis) and M (distant metastasis) classification of NPC patients. Moreover, FMNL3 positively correlated to Vimentin expression and negatively correlated to E-cadherin expression in clinical NPC samples. In vitro experiments showed that FMNL3 expression was inversely related to NPC cell differentiation status. Overexpression of FMNL3 led to epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in well differentiated CNE1 cells. TGF-β1-treated poorly differentiated CNE2 cells showed changes in EMT accompanied by enhanced FMNL3 expression and cell migration. On the contrary, knockdown of FMNL3 partially attenuated the TGF-β1-promoted CNE2 cell migration, together with associated changes in EMT markers. Finally, knockdown of FMNL3 also weakened EMT in tumours in xenographs. Our study indicates for the first time that TGF-β1/FMNL3 signalling may be a novel mechanism mediating EMT in NPC, which is closely associated with NPC metastasis.

Effect of RhoC on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition process induced by TGF-β1 in lung adenocarcinoma cells

According to recent research, Ras homolog gene family member C (RhoC) is confirmed to have a powerful regulatory effect on cell motility mediated by the cytoskeleton, and this process is closely associated with tumor invasion and metastasis. In addition, the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process which causes cytoskeleton rearrangement, also plays a pivotal role in tumor invasion and metastasis.Consequently, in the present study, we aimed to ascertain whether RhoC has an effect on the EMT process induced by TGF-β1 in lung adenocarcinoma cells and whether RhoC promotes tumor invasion by mediating the occurrence of EMT. Based on the findings, we demonstrated that RhoC was an essential mediator of the EMT process in lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549 which was evaluated by observing the morphological characteristics of the cells and by assessing the expression levels of two EMT marker proteins: E-cadherin and vimentin. During the process of EMT in the A549 cells induced by TGF-β1 (5 ng/ml), upregulated RhoC protein and RhoC activity were detected, which was associated with the enhanced invasive capability of the cells in vitro. Conversely, downregulation of the expression of RhoC by shRNA markedly impeded EMT progression as well as the invasion of A549 cells. Our results may provide a novel target towards the prevention of metastasis in advanced lung adenocarcinoma.

RhoC is essential in TGF-β1 induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in cervical cancer cells

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical process in the promotion of epithelial tumor progression and metastasis. The present study aimed to investigate the role of Ras homolog gene family, member C (RhoC) guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) in transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 induced EMT. EMT occurred in human cervical carcinoma SiHa cells following TGF-β1 stimulation for 4 days, as demonstrated by the appearance of mesenchymal morphology, reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, reduced E-cadherin expression and increased Vimentin expression, which was associated with increased RhoC expression and activity. However, EMT was not observed in cells that were pretreated with RhoC siRNA prior to TGF-β1 stimulation. Downregulation of RhoC 4 days following TGF-β1 stimulation was not able to reverse the existing EMT. In addition, TGF-β1 promoted the invasion of the control SiHa cells but not that of the cells in which RhoC was downregulated. In conclusion, RhoC expression is activated by TGF-β1, and sufficient RhoC expression levels are essential for TGF-β1-induced EMT.

The role of RhoC in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of ovarian carcinoma cells

Background

RhoC is a small G protein/GTPase and involved in tumor mobility, invasion and metastasis. Previously, up-regulated RhoC expression is found to play an important role in ovarian carcinogenesis and subsequent progression by modulating proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion.

Methods

We transfected RhoC-expressing plasmid and RhoC siRNA into CAOV3 and OVCAR3 cells respectively. These cells and transfectants were exposed to vascular epithelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 or their receptor inhibitors with the phenotypes and their related-molecules examined.

Results

TGF-β1R or VEGFR inhibitor suppressed the proliferation, migration, invasion and lamellipodia formation, the expression of N-cadherin, α-SMA, snail and Notch1 mRNA or protein, and enhanced E-cadherin mRNA and protein expression in CAOV3 and its RhoC-overexpressing transfectants, whereas both growth factors had the opposite effects in OVCAR3 cells and their RhoC-hypoexpressing transfectants. Ectopic RhoC expression enhanced migration, invasion, lamellipodia formation and the alteration in epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers of CAOV3 cells regardless of the treatment of VEGFR or TGF-β1R inhibitor, whereas RhoC knockdown resulted in the converse in OVCAR3 cells even with the exposure to VEGF or TGF-β1.

Conclusion

RhoC expression might be involved in EMT of ovarian epithelial carcinoma cells, stimulated by TGF-β1 and VEGF.

The role of RhoC in ovarian epithelial carcinoma: a marker for carcinogenesis, progression, prognosis, and target therapy

BACKGROUND

Ras homolog gene family member C (RhoC) is a small G protein/guanosine triphosphatase involved in tumor mobility, invasion, and metastasis.

METHODS

After RhoC siRNA transfection, we measured the changes in phenotypes and some relevant molecules in ovarian carcinoma cell, OVCAR3. The mRNA and protein expression of RhoC was detected in ovarian tumors.

RESULTS

RhoC siRNA transfection resulted in low growth, G1 arrest, and apoptotic induction in the OVCAR3 in comparison with the control and mock. Following RhoC knockdown, there was reduced mRNA or protein expression of protein kinase B (Akt), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (stat3), bcl-xL, surviving and phosphorylated p70S6 kinase (p-p70s6k), while the converse was true for Bax and caspase-3. Lovastatin induced apoptosis, suppressed proliferation, migration and invasion, and disrupted lamellipodia formation in OVCAR3. Lovastatin exposure induced lower RhoC, bcl-2, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), survivin, Akt, bcl-xL, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and p-p70s6k expression in OVCAR3 compared to the control, but higher caspase-3 and Bax expression. RhoC mRNA and protein expression was significantly higher in ovarian carcinoma than in benign tumors and normal ovary tissue (p<0.05) and was positively associated with dedifferentiation, FIGO staging and p-p70s6k expression of ovarian carcinoma (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The up-regulated RhoC expression may affect ovarian carcinogenesis and should be considered a good biomarker for the differentiation and progression of ovarian carcinoma. RhoC plays an important role in apoptosis by modulating the relevant genes and the phosphorylation of downstream p70s6k.

Modeling and characterization of inflammatory breast cancer emboli grown in vitro

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is the deadliest form of breast cancer, presenting as intralymphatic emboli. Emboli within the dermal lymphatic vessels are thought to contribute to rapid metastasis. The lack of appropriate in vitro models has made it difficult to accurately study how IBC emboli metastasize. To date, attempts at creating IBC tumor emboli in vitro have used 3D culture on a solid layer of Matrigel(TM) , which does not resemble the physical properties of the lymphatic system. Dermal lymphatic fluid produces oscillatory fluid shear forces and is 1.5-1.7-fold more viscous than water with a pH range of 7.5-7.7. We have established a method for forming tumor emboli by culturing the IBC cell lines in suspension with either polyethylene glycol- or hyaluronic acid-containing medium and oscillatory fluid shear forces. Non-IBC cells do not form emboli under identical conditions. In vitro IBC emboli were analyzed for expression of markers associated with patient emboli and their ability to undergo invasion. In a direct comparison, the in vitro IBC emboli closely resemble IBC patient emboli with respect to size, composition and E-cadherin expression. Further, cells from the emboli are able to invade in clusters via RhoC GTPase-dependent amoeboid movement. Invasion by clusters of IBC cells is disrupted by exposure to TGFβ. This study provides a biologically relevant in vitro model to accurately grow and study inflammatory breast cancer biology and metastasis.

Overlapping gene expression profiles of cell migration and tumor invasion in human bladder cancer identify metallothionein 1E and nicotinamide N-methyltransferase as novel regulators of cell migration

Cell migration is essential to cancer invasion and metastasis and is spatially and temporally integrated through transcriptionally dependent and independent mechanisms. As cell migration is studied in vitro, it is important to identify genes that both drive cell migration and are biologically relevant in promoting invasion and metastasis in patients with cancer. Here, gene expression profiling and a high-throughput cell migration system answers this question in human bladder cancer. In vitro migration rates of 40 microarray-profiled human bladder cancer cell lines were measured by radial migration assay. Genes whose expression was either directly or inversely associated with cell migration rate were identified and subsequently evaluated for their association with cancer stage in 61 patients. This analysis identified genes known to be associated with cell invasion such as versican, and novel ones, including metallothionein 1E (MT1E) and nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), whose expression correlated positively with cancer cell migration and tumor stage. Using loss of function analysis, we show that MT1E and NNMT are necessary for cancer cell migration. These studies provide a general approach to identify the clinically relevant genes in cancer cell migration and mechanistically implicate two novel genes in this process in human bladder cancer.

RhoC is essential for the metastasis of gastric cancer

Rho family members are known to regulate malignant transformation and motility of cancer cells, but the clinicopathological significance of RhoC remains unclear yet in the case of gastric cancer. In this study, we evaluated the protein expression level of RhoC in gastric cancer tissues and cell lines. Results showed that only weak staining of RhoC was detected in 3 of 33 non-tumorous cases by immunohistochemistry. The expression of RhoC was significantly higher in gastric cancer tissues (23/42, 54.8%) than in non-tumorous tissues (p < 0.01). Further analysis demonstrated that RhoC had high specificity (80.0%) in detecting gastric carcinomas with metastatic potential. RhoC was positively expressed in 18 out of 20 metastases (90.0%), even higher than that in primary gastric cancer tissues. Western blot showed that RhoC was up-regulated in five different gastric cancer cell lines but not expressed in SV40-transformed immortal gastric epithelial cell GES-1. Overexpression of RhoC GTPase in GES-1 cells could produce the motile and invasive phenotype but did not alter the monolayer growth rate. To further study the functions of RhoC, we took the powerful siRNA technology to knock down the expression of RhoC in SGC7901 cells. It was shown that down-regulation of RhoC did not affect the proliferation of SGC7901 cells. However, interference of RhoC expression could inhibit migration, invasion, and anchorage-independent growth of SGC7901 cells. In conclusion, RhoC may play a very important role in the metastasis of gastric carcinoma. Therapeutic strategies targeting RhoC and RhoC-mediated pathways may be a novel approach for treating metastasis of gastric cancer.