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Zheng Y, Shao M, Zheng Y, Sun W, Qin S, Sun Z, Zhu L, Guan Y, Wang Q, Wang Y, Li L. PPARs in atherosclerosis: The spatial and temporal features from mechanism to druggable targets. J Adv Res 2024:S2090-1232(24)00120-6. [PMID: 38555000 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2024.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atherosclerosis is a chronic and complex disease caused by lipid disorder, inflammation, and other factors. It is closely related to cardiovascular diseases, the chief cause of death globally. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are valuable anti-atherosclerosis targets that showcase multiple roles at different pathological stages of atherosclerosis and for cell types at different tissue sites. AIM OF REVIEW Considering the spatial and temporal characteristics of the pathological evolution of atherosclerosis, the roles and pharmacological and clinical studies of PPARs were summarized systematically and updated under different pathological stages and in different vascular cells of atherosclerosis. Moreover, selective PPAR modulators and PPAR-pan agonists can exert their synergistic effects meanwhile reducing the side effects, thereby providing novel insight into future drug development for precise spatial-temporal therapeutic strategy of anti-atherosclerosis targeting PPARs. KEY SCIENTIFIC Concepts of Review: Based on the spatial and temporal characteristics of atherosclerosis, we have proposed the importance of stage- and cell type-dependent precision therapy. Initially, PPARs improve endothelial cells' dysfunction by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress and then regulate macrophages' lipid metabolism and polarization to improve fatty streak. Finally, PPARs reduce fibrous cap formation by suppressing the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Therefore, research on the cell type-specific mechanisms of PPARs can provide the foundation for space-time drug treatment. Moreover, pharmacological studies have demonstrated that several drugs or compounds can exert their effects by the activation of PPARs. Selective PPAR modulators (that specifically activate gene subsets of PPARs) can exert tissue and cell-specific effects. Furthermore, the dual- or pan-PPAR agonist could perform a better role in balancing efficacy and side effects. Therefore, research on cells/tissue-specific activation of PPARs and PPAR-pan agonists can provide the basis for precision therapy and drug development of PPARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zheng
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Mingyan Shao
- National Institute of TCM Constitution and Preventive Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yanfei Zheng
- National Institute of TCM Constitution and Preventive Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Wenlong Sun
- Institute of Biomedical Research, School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Si Qin
- Lab of Food Function and Nutrigenomics, College of Food Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Ziwei Sun
- National Institute of TCM Constitution and Preventive Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Linghui Zhu
- Institute of Basic Theory for Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Yuanyuan Guan
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Qi Wang
- National Institute of TCM Constitution and Preventive Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Yong Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China; First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming 650500, China.
| | - Lingru Li
- National Institute of TCM Constitution and Preventive Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
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Kinetics of lipid radical formation in lipoproteins from β-thalassemia: Implication of cholesteryl esters and α-tocopherol. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 154:113624. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Wang X, Li H, Zou X, Yan X, Cong P, Li H, Wang H, Xue C, Xu J. Deep mining and quantification of oxidized cholesteryl esters discovers potential biomarkers involved in breast cancer by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1663:462764. [PMID: 34954533 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Oxidized cholesteryl ester (OxCE) is produced by the oxidation of cholesteryl ester (CE) in the cores of lipoproteins. OxCE production and oxidative stress have been largely associated with breast cancer. Herein, we developed a novel reverse-phase liquid chromatography coupling quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (RPLC‒Q-TOF‒MS) method based on the iterative acquisition mode and used the MS/MS mode for deep mining and simultaneous quantification of cholesterol (Chol), CEs and OxCEs in human serum. A mathematical model was used to globally profile 57 molecular species of both CEs and OxCEs in the serum of both healthy volunteers and patients with breast cancer, and the qualitative results were verified based on the retention regularity. An abnormal elevation of OxCEs was found in serum samples of breast cancer patients, where OxCEs were produced by the oxidation of the fatty acyl chain of CE (20:4), such as CE (20:1)+3O, CE (20:2)+2O and CE (20:3)+O, which could be regarded as biomarkers. This comprehensive method for the global profiling of Chol, OxCEs and CEs sheds light on the role OxCEs and CEs play in breast cancer and has enabled the discovery of breast cancer biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xincen Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - He Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Xiao Zou
- Qingdao Central Hospital, No. 127, Siliu Nan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266500, China
| | - Xiong Yan
- Qingdao Central Hospital, No. 127, Siliu Nan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266500, China
| | - Peixu Cong
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Hongyan Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China; College of Marine Science and Biological Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Agilent Technologies Co. Ltd., No. 9 Hongkong Zhong Road, Qingdao Shandong 266071, China
| | - Changhu Xue
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China; Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), No. 1, Wenhai Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
| | - Jie Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5, Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China.
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Empagliflozin Ameliorates Free Fatty Acid Induced-Lipotoxicity in Renal Proximal Tubular Cells via the PPARγ/CD36 Pathway in Obese Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212408. [PMID: 34830289 PMCID: PMC8621539 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
High serum levels of free fatty acids (FFAs) could contribute to obesity-induced nephropathy. CD36, a class B scavenger receptor, is a major receptor mediating FFA uptake in renal proximal tubular cells. Empagliflozin, a new anti-diabetic agent, is a specific inhibitor of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 channels presented on renal proximal tubular cells and inhibits glucose reabsorption. In addition, empagliflozin has shown renoprotective effects. However, the mechanism through which empagliflozin regulates CD36 expression and attenuates FFA-induced lipotoxicity remains unclear. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the crosstalk between empagliflozin and CD36 in FFA-induced renal injury. C57BL/6 mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) and palmitic acid-treated HK-2 renal tubular cells were used for in vivo and in vitro assessments. Empagliflozin attenuated HFD-induced body weight gain, insulin resistance, and inflammation in mice. In HFD-fed mice, CD36 was upregulated in the tubular area of the kidney, whereas empagliflozin attenuated CD36 expression. Furthermore, empagliflozin downregulated the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ. Treatment with a PPARγ inhibitor (GW9662) did not further decrease PPARγ expression, whereas a PPARγ antagonist reversed this effect; this suggested that empagliflozin may, at least partly, decrease CD36 by modulating PPARγ. In conclusion, empagliflozin can ameliorate FFA-induced renal tubular injury via the PPARγ/CD36 pathway.
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Muzio G, Barrera G, Pizzimenti S. Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs) and Oxidative Stress in Physiological Conditions and in Cancer. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10111734. [PMID: 34829605 PMCID: PMC8614822 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10111734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) belong to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. Originally described as “orphan nuclear receptors”, they can bind both natural and synthetic ligands acting as agonists or antagonists. In humans three subtypes, PPARα, β/δ, γ, are encoded by different genes, show tissue-specific expression patterns, and contribute to the regulation of lipid and carbohydrate metabolisms, of different cell functions, including proliferation, death, differentiation, and of processes, as inflammation, angiogenesis, immune response. The PPAR ability in increasing the expression of various antioxidant genes and decreasing the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators, makes them be considered among the most important regulators of the cellular response to oxidative stress conditions. Based on the multiplicity of physiological effects, PPAR involvement in cancer development and progression has attracted great scientific interest with the aim to describe changes occurring in their expression in cancer cells, and to investigate the correlation with some characteristics of cancer phenotype, including increased proliferation, decreased susceptibility to apoptosis, malignancy degree and onset of resistance to anticancer drugs. This review focuses on mechanisms underlying the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of PPARs in physiological conditions, and on the reported beneficial effects of PPAR activation in cancer.
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Puchałowicz K, Rać ME. The Multifunctionality of CD36 in Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications-Update in Pathogenesis, Treatment and Monitoring. Cells 2020; 9:cells9081877. [PMID: 32796572 PMCID: PMC7465275 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
CD36 is a multiligand receptor contributing to glucose and lipid metabolism, immune response, inflammation, thrombosis, and fibrosis. A wide range of tissue expression includes cells sensitive to metabolic abnormalities associated with metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus (DM), such as monocytes and macrophages, epithelial cells, adipocytes, hepatocytes, skeletal and cardiac myocytes, pancreatic β-cells, kidney glomeruli and tubules cells, pericytes and pigment epithelium cells of the retina, and Schwann cells. These features make CD36 an important component of the pathogenesis of DM and its complications, but also a promising target in the treatment of these disorders. The detrimental effects of CD36 signaling are mediated by the uptake of fatty acids and modified lipoproteins, deposition of lipids and their lipotoxicity, alterations in insulin response and the utilization of energy substrates, oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis leading to the progressive, often irreversible organ dysfunction. This review summarizes the extensive knowledge of the contribution of CD36 to DM and its complications, including nephropathy, retinopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and cardiomyopathy.
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Gonen A, Miller YI. From Inert Storage to Biological Activity-In Search of Identity for Oxidized Cholesteryl Esters. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:602252. [PMID: 33329402 PMCID: PMC7715012 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.602252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Esterification of cholesterol is a universal mechanism to store and transport large quantities of cholesterol between organs and tissues and to avoid toxicity of the excess of cellular cholesterol. Intended for transport and storage and thus to be inert, cholesteryl esters (CEs) reside in hydrophobic cores of circulating lipoproteins and intracellular lipid droplets. However, the inert identity of CEs is dramatically changed if cholesterol is esterified to a polyunsaturated fatty acid and subjected to oxidative modification. Post-synthetic, or epilipidomic, oxidative modifications of CEs are mediated by specialized enzymes, chief among them are lipoxygenases, and by free radical oxidation. The complex repertoire of oxidized CE (OxCE) products exhibit various, context-dependent biological activities, surveyed in this review. Oxidized fatty acyl chains in OxCE can be hydrolyzed and re-esterified, thus seeding oxidized moieties into phospholipids (PLs), with OxPLs having different from OxCEs biological activities. Technological advances in mass spectrometry and the development of new anti-OxCE antibodies make it possible to validate the presence and quantify the levels of OxCEs in human atherosclerotic lesions and plasma. The article discusses the prospects of measuring OxCE levels in plasma as a novel biomarker assay to evaluate risk of developing cardiovascular disease and efficacy of treatment.
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Yu P, Xiong T, Tenedero CB, Lebeau P, Ni R, MacDonald ME, Gross PL, Austin RC, Trigatti BL. Rosuvastatin Reduces Aortic Sinus and Coronary Artery Atherosclerosis in SR-B1 (Scavenger Receptor Class B Type 1)/ApoE (Apolipoprotein E) Double Knockout Mice Independently of Plasma Cholesterol Lowering. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2017; 38:26-39. [PMID: 29162602 PMCID: PMC5757666 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.117.305140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text. Objective— Rosuvastatin has been widely used in the primary and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. However, its antiatherosclerotic properties have not been tested in a mouse model that could mimic human coronary heart disease. The present study was designed to test the effects of rosuvastatin on coronary artery atherosclerosis and myocardial fibrosis in SR-B1 (scavenger receptor class B type 1) and apoE (apolipoprotein E) double knockout mice. Approach and Results— Three-week-old SR-B1−/−/apoE−/− mice were injected daily with 10 mg/kg of rosuvastatin for 2 weeks. Compared with saline-treated mice, rosuvastatin-treated mice showed increased levels of hepatic PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type-9) and LDLR (low-density lipoprotein receptor) message, increased plasma PCSK9 protein but decreased levels of hepatic LDLR protein and increased plasma total cholesterol associated with apoB (apolipoprotein B) 48-containing lipoproteins. In spite of this, rosuvastatin treatment was associated with decreased atherosclerosis in both the aortic sinus and coronary arteries and reduced platelet accumulation in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. Cardiac fibrosis and cardiomegaly were also attenuated in rosuvastatin-treated SR-B1−/−/apoE−/− mice. Two-week treatment with rosuvastatin resulted in significant decreases in markers of oxidized phospholipids in atherosclerotic plaques. In vitro analysis showed that incubation of bone marrow-derived macrophages with rosuvastatin substantially downregulated cluster of differentiation (CD)36 and inhibited oxidized LDL-induced foam cell formation. Conclusions— Rosuvastatin protected SR-B1−/−/apoE−/− mice against atherosclerosis and platelet accumulation in coronary arteries and attenuated myocardial fibrosis and cardiomegaly, despite increased plasma total cholesterol. The ability of rosuvastatin to reduce oxidized phospholipids in atherosclerotic plaques and inhibit macrophage foam cell formation may have contributed to this protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Yu
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Ting Xiong
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Christine B Tenedero
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Paul Lebeau
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Ran Ni
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Melissa E MacDonald
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Peter L Gross
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Richard C Austin
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Bernardo L Trigatti
- From the Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., R.N., M.E.M., P.L.G., R.C.A., B.L.T.), St. Joseph's Hamilton Healthcare and Hamilton Center for Kidney Research (P.L., R.C.A.), Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences (P.Y., T.X., C.B.T., M.E.M., B.L.T.), and Department of Medicine (P.L., R.N., P.L.G., R.C.A.), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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CD36 in chronic kidney disease: novel insights and therapeutic opportunities. Nat Rev Nephrol 2017; 13:769-781. [DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2017.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Shchepetkina AA, Hock BD, Miller A, Kennedy MA, Gieseg SP. Effect of 7,8-dihydroneopterin mediated CD36 down regulation and oxidant scavenging on oxidised low-density lipoprotein induced cell death in human macrophages. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2017; 87:27-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2017.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Bobryshev YV, Nikiforov NG, Elizova NV, Orekhov AN. Macrophages and Their Contribution to the Development of Atherosclerosis. Results Probl Cell Differ 2017; 62:273-298. [PMID: 28455713 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-54090-0_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis can be regarded as chronic inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation in the arterial wall. Macrophages play a key role in the development of local inflammatory response and atherosclerotic lesion growth. Atherosclerotic plaque is a complex microenvironment, in which different subsets of macrophages coexist executing distinct, although in some cases overlapping functions. According to the classical simplified nomenclature, lesion macrophages can belong to pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory or alternatively activated types. While the former promote the inflammatory response and participate in lipid accumulation, the latter are responsible for the inflammation resolution and plaque stabilisation. Atherosclerotic lesion dynamics depends therefore on the balance between these macrophages populations. The diverse functions of macrophages make them an attractive therapeutic target for the development of novel anti-atherosclerotic treatments. In this chapter, we discuss different types of macrophages and their roles in atherosclerotic lesion dynamics and describe the results of several experiments studying macrophage polarisation in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri V Bobryshev
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, NSW, 2052, Sydney, Australia.
- School of Medicine, University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown, NSW, 2560, Australia.
- Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 125315, Russia.
| | - Nikita G Nikiforov
- Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 125315, Russia
- Institute for Atherosclerosis Research, Skolkovo Innovative Center, Moscow, 143025, Russia
| | - Natalia V Elizova
- Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 125315, Russia
- Institute for Atherosclerosis Research, Skolkovo Innovative Center, Moscow, 143025, Russia
| | - Alexander N Orekhov
- Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 125315, Russia
- Institute for Atherosclerosis Research, Skolkovo Innovative Center, Moscow, 143025, Russia
- Department of Biophysics, Biological Faculty, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
- National Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Moscow, 101000, Russia
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Hu W, Zhang W, Chen Y, Rana U, Teng RJ, Duan Y, Liu Z, Zhao B, Foeckler J, Weiler H, Kallinger RE, Thomas MJ, Zhang K, Han J, Miao QR. Nogo-B receptor deficiency increases liver X receptor alpha nuclear translocation and hepatic lipogenesis through an adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase alpha-dependent pathway. Hepatology 2016; 64:1559-1576. [PMID: 27480224 PMCID: PMC5074877 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Nogo-B receptor (NgBR) was identified as a specific receptor for binding Nogo-B and is essential for the stability of Niemann-Pick type C2 protein (NPC2) and NPC2-dependent cholesterol trafficking. Here, we report that NgBR expression levels decrease in the fatty liver and that NgBR plays previously unrecognized roles in regulating hepatic lipogenesis through NPC2-independent pathways. To further elucidate the pathophysiological role of NgBR in mammals, we generated NgBR liver-specific knockout mice and investigated the roles of NgBR in hepatic lipid homeostasis. The results showed that NgBR knockout in mouse liver did not decrease NPC2 levels or increase NPC2-dependent intracellular cholesterol levels. However, NgBR deficiency still resulted in remarkable cellular lipid accumulation that was associated with increased free fatty acids and triglycerides in hepatocytes in vitro and in mouse livers in vivo. Mechanistically, NgBR deficiency specifically promotes the nuclear translocation of the liver X receptor alpha (LXRα) and increases the expression of LXRα-targeted lipogenic genes. LXRα knockout attenuates the accumulation of free fatty acids and triglycerides caused by NgBR deficiency. In addition, we elucidated the mechanisms by which NgBR bridges the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase alpha signaling pathway with LXRα nuclear translocation and LXRα-mediated lipogenesis. CONCLUSION NgBR is a specific negative regulator for LXRα-dependent hepatic lipogenesis. Loss of NgBR may be a potential trigger for inducing hepatic steatosis. (Hepatology 2016;64:1559-1576).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenquan Hu
- Department of Surgery and Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin
,State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Wenwen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Yuanli Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Ujala Rana
- Department of Surgery and Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | - Ru-jeng Teng
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | - Yajun Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Zhong Liu
- Department of Surgery and Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | - Baofeng Zhao
- Department of Surgery and Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | | | | | | | - Michael J. Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin
| | - Kezhong Zhang
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Jihong Han
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China. .,College of Biomedical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China.
| | - Qing Robert Miao
- Departments of Surgery and Pathology, Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI.
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Macrophages and Their Role in Atherosclerosis: Pathophysiology and Transcriptome Analysis. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:9582430. [PMID: 27493969 PMCID: PMC4967433 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9582430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis can be regarded as a chronic inflammatory state, in which macrophages play different and important roles. Phagocytic proinflammatory cells populate growing atherosclerotic lesions, where they actively participate in cholesterol accumulation. Moreover, macrophages promote formation of complicated and unstable plaques by maintaining proinflammatory microenvironment. At the same time, anti-inflammatory macrophages contribute to tissue repair and remodelling and plaque stabilization. Macrophages therefore represent attractive targets for development of antiatherosclerotic therapy, which can aim to reduce monocyte recruitment to the lesion site, inhibit proinflammatory macrophages, or stimulate anti-inflammatory responses and cholesterol efflux. More studies are needed, however, to create a comprehensive classification of different macrophage phenotypes and to define their roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on macrophage diversity, activation, and plasticity in atherosclerosis and describe macrophage-based cellular tests for evaluation of potential antiatherosclerotic substances.
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Choi SH, Sviridov D, Miller YI. Oxidized cholesteryl esters and inflammation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1862:393-397. [PMID: 27368140 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis proposes that oxidized LDL is a major causative factor in the development of atherosclerosis. Although this hypothesis has received strong mechanistic support and many animal studies demonstrated profound atheroprotective effects of antioxidants, which reduce LDL oxidation, the results of human clinical trials with antioxidants were mainly negative, except in selected groups of patients with clearly increased systemic oxidative stress. We propose that even if reducing lipoprotein oxidation in humans might be difficult to achieve, deeper understanding of mechanisms by which oxidized LDL promotes atherosclerosis and targeting these specific mechanisms will offer novel approaches to treatment of cardiovascular disease. In this review article, we focus on oxidized cholesteryl esters (OxCE), which are a major component of minimally and extensively oxidized LDL and of human atherosclerotic lesions. OxCE and OxCE-protein covalent adducts induce profound biological effects. Among these effects, OxCE activate macrophages via toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) and spleen tyrosine kinase and induce macropinocytosis resulting in lipid accumulation, generation of reactive oxygen species and secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Specific inhibition of OxCE-induced TLR4 activation, as well as blocking other inflammatory effects of OxCE, may offer novel treatments of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipid modification and lipid peroxidation products in innate immunity and inflammation edited by Christoph J. Binder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo-Ho Choi
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Dmitri Sviridov
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Yury I Miller
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease with deposition of excessive cholesterol in the arterial intima. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) is a nuclear receptor that can activate or inhibit the expression of many target genes by forming a heterodimer complex with the retinoid X receptor. Activation of PPARα plays an important role in the metabolism of multiple lipids, including high-density lipoprotein, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, triglyceride, phospholipid, bile acids, and fatty acids. Increased PPARα activity also mitigates atherosclerosis by blocking macrophage foam cell formation, vascular inflammation, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, plaque instability, and thrombogenicity. Clinical use of synthetic PPARα agonist fibrate improved dyslipidemia and attenuated atherosclerosis-related disease risk. This review summarizes PPARα in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis, and also highlights its potential therapeutic benefits.
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RETRACTED: Macrophage phenotypic plasticity in atherosclerosis: The associated features and the peculiarities of the expression of inflammatory genes. Int J Cardiol 2015; 184:436-445. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Leonarduzzi G, Gamba P, Gargiulo S, Biasi F, Poli G. Inflammation-related gene expression by lipid oxidation-derived products in the progression of atherosclerosis. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 52:19-34. [PMID: 22037514 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Vascular areas of atherosclerotic development persist in a state of inflammation, and any further inflammatory stimulus in the subintimal area elicits a proatherogenic response; this alters the behavior of the artery wall cells and recruits further inflammatory cells. In association with the inflammatory response, oxidative events are also involved in the development of atherosclerotic plaques. It is now unanimously recognized that lipid oxidation-derived products are key players in the initiation and progression of atherosclerotic lesions. Oxidized lipids, derived from oxidatively modified low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), which accumulate in the intima, strongly modulate inflammation-related gene expression, through involvement of various signaling pathways. In addition, considerable evidence supports a proatherogenic role of a large group of potent bioactive lipids called eicosanoids, which derive from oxidation of arachidonic acid, a component of membrane phospholipids. Of note, LDL lipid oxidation products might regulate eicosanoid production, modulating the enzymatic degradation of arachidonic acid by cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases; these enzymes might also directly contribute to LDL oxidation. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on signal transduction pathways and inflammatory gene expression, modulated by lipid oxidation-derived products, in the progression of atherosclerosis.
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18
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The accumulation of macrophages in the vascular wall is a hallmark of atherosclerosis. The biological properties of atherosclerotic plaque macrophages determine lesion size, composition, and stability. In atherosclerotic plaques, macrophages encounter a microenvironment that comprises a variety of lipid oxidation products, each of which has diverse biological effects. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the effects of plaque lipids on macrophage phenotypic polarization. RECENT FINDINGS Atherosclerotic lesions in mice and in humans contain various macrophage phenotypes, which play different roles in mediating inflammation, the clearance of dead cells, and possibly resolution. Macrophages alter their phenotype and biological function in response to plaque lipids through the upregulation of specific sets of genes. Interaction of oxidized lipids with pattern recognition receptors and activation of the inflammasome by cholesterol crystals drive macrophages toward an inflammatory M1 phenotype. A new phenotype, Mox, develops when oxidized phospholipids activate stress response genes via Nrf2. Other lipid mediators such as nitrosylated-fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acid-derived products polarize plaque macrophages toward anti-inflammatory and proresolving phenotypes. SUMMARY A deeper understanding of how lipids that accumulate in atherosclerotic plaques affect macrophage phenotype and function and thus atherosclerotic lesion development and stability will help to devise novel strategies for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Norbert Leitinger
- Corresponding author: University of Virginia, Department of Pharmacology; 1340 Jefferson Park Avenue, Jordan Hall, 5th Floor, Rm 5036/5039, P.O. Box 800735, Charlottesville, VA 22908; Tel: 434-243-6363, Fax: 434-924-0149;
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19
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The Role of PPAR Ligands in Controlling Growth-Related Gene Expression and their Interaction with Lipoperoxidation Products. PPAR Res 2011; 2008:524671. [PMID: 18615196 PMCID: PMC2443425 DOI: 10.1155/2008/524671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors that belong to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. The three PPAR isoforms (α, γ and β/δ) have been found to play a pleiotropic role in cell fat metabolism. Furthermore, in recent years, evidence has been found regarding the antiproliferative, proapoptotic, and differentiation-promoting activities displayed by PPAR ligands, particularly by PPARγ ligands. PPAR ligands affect the expression of different growth-related genes through both PPAR-dependent and PPAR-independent mechanisms. Moreover, an interaction between PPAR ligands and other molecules which strengthen the effects of PPAR ligands has been described. Here we review the action of PPAR on the control of gene expression with particular regard to the effect of PPAR ligands on the expression of genes involved in the regulation of cell-cycle, differentiation, and apoptosis. Moreover, the interaction between PPAR ligands and 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE), the major product of the lipid peroxidation, has been reviewed.
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Abstract
Normally macrophages localized in the arterial vessel wall perform the "reverse transfer" of cholesterol, which includes endocytosis of low density lipoproteins (LDL), cholesterol transfer to newly formed high density lipoprotein particles, and their following elimination by the liver. The homeostatic function of macrophages for cholesterol involves a system of lipid sensors. Oxysterol sensors LXRs, oxysterol and cholesterol sensors INSIG and SCAP acting through controlled transcription factors SREBP, as well as sensors for oxidized fatty acids and their derivatives, PPAR, are the best studied. Activation of LXR and PPAR is also accompanied by inhibition of macrophage functions related to inflammation. Accumulation of oxidized and otherwise modified LDL in the subendothelial space induced by endothelium injury, infection, or other pathogenic factors instead of stimulation of the homeostatic functions of macrophages leads to their weakening with a concurrent increase in the inflammatory potential of these cells. These shifts seem to drive the transformation of macrophages into foam cells, which form the core of sclerotic plaques. The intervention of another lipid sensor, TLR4, can trigger such a radical change in the functional activity of macrophages. The interaction of modified LDL with this signaling receptor results in inhibition of the homeostatic oxysterol signaling, induction of additional LDL transporters, and activation of the phagocytic function of macrophages. The re-establishment of cholesterol homeostasis under these circumstances can be achieved by administration of LXR and PPARgamma agonists. Therefore, it is urgent to design ligands with reduced side effects.
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Levitan I, Volkov S, Subbaiah PV. Oxidized LDL: diversity, patterns of recognition, and pathophysiology. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:39-75. [PMID: 19888833 PMCID: PMC2877120 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2009] [Revised: 10/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/02/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative modification of LDL is known to elicit an array of pro-atherogenic responses, but it is generally underappreciated that oxidized LDL (OxLDL) exists in multiple forms, characterized by different degrees of oxidation and different mixtures of bioactive components. The variable effects of OxLDL reported in the literature can be attributed in large part to the heterogeneous nature of the preparations employed. In this review, we first describe the various subclasses and molecular composition of OxLDL, including the variety of minimally modified LDL preparations. We then describe multiple receptors that recognize various species of OxLDL and discuss the mechanisms responsible for the recognition by specific receptors. Furthermore, we discuss the contentious issues such as the nature of OxLDL in vivo and the physiological oxidizing agents, whether oxidation of LDL is a prerequisite for atherogenesis, whether OxLDL is the major source of lipids in foam cells, whether in some cases it actually induces cholesterol depletion, and finally the Janus-like nature of OxLDL in having both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. Lastly, we extend our review to discuss the role of LDL oxidation in diseases other than atherosclerosis, including diabetes mellitus, and several autoimmune diseases, such as lupus erythematosus, anti-phospholipid syndrome, and rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Levitan
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA.
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Terra X, Fernández-Larrea J, Pujadas G, Ardèvol A, Bladé C, Salvadó J, Arola L, Blay M. Inhibitory effects of grape seed procyanidins on foam cell formation in vitro. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:2588-2594. [PMID: 19292475 DOI: 10.1021/jf803450a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Human and animal studies have demonstrated that procyanidin-rich diets reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and atherosclerosis. Some beneficial effects have been attributed to the well-known antioxidant activity of procyanidins. This study investigated another potential corrective role of procyanidins in cholesterol flux and inflammation in macrophage-derived foam cells. RAW 264.7 macrophages were cultured with moderately oxidized LDL (oxLDL), minimally oxidized LDL (moxLDL), or LPS (0.5 microg/mL) and oxLDL (LPS + oxLDL) to induce foam cells. Then, cells were treated with procyanidins derived from grape seed (PE, 45 microg/mL) for the last 12 h of incubation with the different lipoproteins (25 microg/mL). After lipid extraction, it was determined that total and esterified cholesterol and triglyceride accumulations in foam cells were increased by lipoprotein treatment but reduced by PE incubation. To asses the effect of PE on gene expression, the relative mRNA levels of CD36, ABCA1, iNOS, COX-2, and IkappaBalpha were determined by RT-PCR. It was shown that PE reduced the oxLDL scavenger receptor expression (CD36) and enhanced ATP-binding cassette A1 (ABCA1) expression, a key regulator of macrophage cholesterol efflux. PE also down-regulated inflammatory-related genes such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and kappa beta inhibitor-alpha (IkappaBalpha) without modifying COX-2 expression. In conclusion, evidence is provided that procyanidins may attenuate the development of foam cell formation by reducing cholesterol accumulation and modulating the expression of key genes in cholesterol flux and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximena Terra
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Unitat d'Enologia del Centre de Referencia en Tecnologia dels Aliments de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
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23
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The Role of PPARs in the Endothelium: Implications for Cancer Therapy. PPAR Res 2008; 2008:904251. [PMID: 19043612 PMCID: PMC2586817 DOI: 10.1155/2008/904251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Revised: 07/28/2008] [Accepted: 09/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The growth and metastasis of cancers intimately involve the vasculature and in particular the endothelial cell layer. Tumours require new blood vessel formation via angiogenesis to support growth. In addition, inflammation, coagulation, and platelet activation are common signals in the growth and metastasis of tumour cells. The endothelium plays a central role in the homeostatic control of inflammatory cell recruitment, regulating platelet activation and coagulation pathways. PPARalpha, -beta/delta, and -gamma are all expressed in endothelial cells. This review will discuss the roles of PPARs in endothelial cells in relation to angiogenesis, inflammation, coagulation, and platelet control pathways. In particular, we will discuss the recent evidence that supports the hypothesis that PPARalpha and PPARgamma are antiangiogenic receptors, while PPARbeta/delta is proangiogenic.
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Harkewicz R, Hartvigsen K, Almazan F, Dennis EA, Witztum JL, Miller YI. Cholesteryl ester hydroperoxides are biologically active components of minimally oxidized low density lipoprotein. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:10241-51. [PMID: 18263582 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m709006200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) occurs in vivo and significantly contributes to the development of atherosclerosis. An important mechanism of LDL oxidation in vivo is its modification with 12/15-lipoxygenase (LO). We have developed a model of minimally oxidized LDL (mmLDL) in which native LDL is modified by cells expressing 12/15LO. This mmLDL activates macrophages inducing membrane ruffling and cell spreading, activation of ERK1/2 and Akt signaling, and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. In this study, we found that many of the biological activities of mmLDL were associated with cholesteryl ester (CE) hydroperoxides and were diminished by ebselen, a reducing agent. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy demonstrated the presence of many mono- and polyoxygenated CE species in mmLDL but not in native LDL. Nonpolar lipid extracts of mmLDL activated macrophages, although to a lesser degree than intact mmLDL. The macrophage responses were also induced by LDL directly modified with immobilized 12/15LO, and the nonpolar lipids extracted from 12/15LO-modified LDL contained a similar set of oxidized CE. Cholesteryl arachidonate modified with 12/15LO also activated macrophages and contained a similar collection of oxidized CE molecules. Remarkably, many of these oxidized CE were found in the extracts of atherosclerotic lesions isolated from hyperlipidemic apoE(-/-) mice. These results suggest that CE hydroperoxides constitute a class of biologically active components of mmLDL that may be relevant to proinflammatory activation of macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Harkewicz
- Department of Pharmacology, Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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