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Ding Z, Song H, Wang F. Role of lipins in cardiovascular diseases. Lipids Health Dis 2023; 22:196. [PMID: 37964368 PMCID: PMC10644651 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-023-01961-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipin family members in mammals include lipins 1, 2, and 3. Lipin family proteins play a crucial role in lipid metabolism due to their bifunctionality as both transcriptional coregulators and phosphatidate phosphatase (PAP) enzymes. In this review, we discuss the structural features, expression patterns, and pathophysiologic functions of lipins, emphasizing their direct as well as indirect roles in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Elucidating the regulation of lipins facilitates a deeper understanding of the roles of lipins in the processes underlying CVDs. The activity of lipins is modulated at various levels, e.g., in the form of the transcription of genes, post-translational modifications, and subcellular protein localization. Because lipin characteristics are undergoing progressive clarification, further research is necessitated to then actuate the investigation of lipins as viable therapeutic targets in CVDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zerui Ding
- The Endocrinology Department of the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Hongyu Song
- The Endocrinology Department of the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Fang Wang
- The Endocrinology Department of the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China.
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2
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Muthusamy G, Liu CC, Johnston AN. Deletion of PGAM5 Downregulates FABP1 and Attenuates Long-Chain Fatty Acid Uptake in Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:4796. [PMID: 37835490 PMCID: PMC10571733 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15194796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphoglycerate mutase 5 (PGAM5) is a Ser/His/Thr phosphatase responsible for regulating mitochondrial homeostasis. Overexpression of PGAM5 is correlated with a poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma, colon cancer, and melanoma. In hepatocellular carcinoma, silencing of PGAM5 reduces growth, which has been attributed to decreased mitophagy and enhanced apoptosis. Yet in colon cancer, PGAM5's pro-tumor survival effect is correlated to lipid metabolism. We sought to identify whether deletion of PGAM5 modulated lipid droplet accrual in hepatocellular carcinoma. HepG2 and Huh7 PGAM5 knockout cell lines generated using CRISPR/Cas9 technology were used to measure cell growth, cellular ATP, and long-chain fatty acid uptake. Expression of hepatocellular fatty acid transporters, cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), solute carrier family 27 member 2 (SLC27A2), solute carrier family 27 member 5 (SLC27A5), and fatty acid binding protein 1 (FABP1) was measured by quantitative PCR and Western blot. We found that deletion of PGAM5 attenuates hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth and ATP production. Further, PGAM5 knockout ameliorates palmitate-induced steatosis and reduces expression of FABP1 in HepG2 and Huh7 cell lines. PGAM5's role in hepatocellular carcinoma includes regulation of fatty acid metabolism, which may be related to expression of the fatty acid transporter, FABP1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Andrea N. Johnston
- Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (G.M.); (C.-C.L.)
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3
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Un Nisa M, Gillani SQ, Nabi N, Sarwar Z, Reshi I, Bhat SA, Andrabi S. Lipin-1 stability and its adipogenesis functions are regulated in contrasting ways by AKT1 and LKB1. J Cell Commun Signal 2023; 17:689-704. [PMID: 36380131 PMCID: PMC10409976 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-022-00708-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipin-1 is a protein that plays a critical role in many cellular functions. At molecular level, it acts as a phosphatidic acid phosphohydrolase and a transcriptional coactivator. The functions of lipin-1 are largely dependent upon its subcellular localization, post-translational modifications like phosphorylation and acetylation, and also on its interaction with other proteins such as 14-3-3. However, the kinases and phosphatases that are responsible for these post translational modifications are not entirely known. Using bioinformatics and other biochemical approaches, we demonstrate lipin-1 as a novel target for AKT1 and LKB1. While AKT1 stabilizes lipin-1, LKB1 causes its degradation. Interestingly, our findings further show that lipin-1 enhances AKT1 activity as can be seen by increased phosphorylation of the substrates of AKT1. Taken together, our results suggest that lipin-1 plays an important role in the regulation of PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway, which is dysregulated in majority of cancers. Therefore, understating the role of lipin-1 may provide new and important insights into the regulation and functions of the PI3K-mTOR pathway, which is one of the major targets for anti-cancer drug development strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misbah Un Nisa
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India
| | | | - Nusrat Nabi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India
| | - Zarka Sarwar
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India
| | - Irfana Reshi
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India
| | - Sameer Ahmed Bhat
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India
| | - Shaida Andrabi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India.
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4
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Nag S, Szederkenyi K, Gorbenko O, Tyrrell H, Yip CM, McQuibban GA. PGAM5 is an MFN2 phosphatase that plays an essential role in the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112895. [PMID: 37498743 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial morphology is regulated by the post-translational modifications of the dynamin family GTPase proteins including mitofusin 1 (MFN1), MFN2, and dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1). Mitochondrial phosphatase phosphoglycerate mutase 5 (PGAM5) is emerging as a regulator of these post-translational modifications; however, its precise role in the regulation of mitochondrial morphology is unknown. We show that PGAM5 interacts with MFN2 and DRP1 in a stress-sensitive manner. PGAM5 regulates MFN2 phosphorylation and consequently protects it from ubiquitination and degradation. Further, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation modification of MFN2 regulates its fusion ability. Phosphorylation enhances fission and degradation, whereas dephosphorylation enhances fusion. PGAM5 dephosphorylates MFN2 to promote mitochondrial network formation. Further, using a Drosophila genetic model, we demonstrate that the MFN2 homolog Marf and dPGAM5 are in the same biological pathway. Our results identify MFN2 dephosphorylation as a regulator of mitochondrial fusion and PGAM5 as an MFN2 phosphatase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeshna Nag
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Kaitlin Szederkenyi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada; Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Olena Gorbenko
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Hannah Tyrrell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Christopher M Yip
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada; Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - G Angus McQuibban
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, MaRS Centre West Tower, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada.
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Merta H, Carrasquillo Rodríguez JW, Anjur-Dietrich MI, Vitale T, Granade ME, Harris TE, Needleman DJ, Bahmanyar S. Cell cycle regulation of ER membrane biogenesis protects against chromosome missegregation. Dev Cell 2021; 56:3364-3379.e10. [PMID: 34852214 PMCID: PMC8692360 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Failure to reorganize the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in mitosis results in chromosome missegregation. Here, we show that accurate chromosome segregation in human cells requires cell cycle-regulated ER membrane production. Excess ER membranes increase the viscosity of the mitotic cytoplasm to physically restrict chromosome movements, which impedes the correction of mitotic errors leading to the formation of micronuclei. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that the protein phosphatase CTDNEP1 counteracts mTOR kinase to establish a dephosphorylated pool of the phosphatidic acid phosphatase lipin 1 in interphase. CTDNEP1 control of lipin 1 limits the synthesis of fatty acids for ER membrane biogenesis in interphase that then protects against chromosome missegregation in mitosis. Thus, regulation of ER size can dictate the biophysical properties of mitotic cells, providing an explanation for why ER reorganization is necessary for mitotic fidelity. Our data further suggest that dysregulated lipid metabolism is a potential source of aneuploidy in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Merta
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | | | - Maya I Anjur-Dietrich
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Tevis Vitale
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Mitchell E Granade
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Thurl E Harris
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Daniel J Needleman
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Shirin Bahmanyar
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
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6
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Mateus T, Almeida I, Costa A, Viegas D, Magalhães S, Martins F, Herdeiro MT, da Cruz e Silva OAB, Fraga C, Alves I, Nunes A, Rebelo S. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy as a Discriminatory Tool for Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 Metabolism: A Pilot Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073800. [PMID: 33917301 PMCID: PMC8038712 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a hereditary disease characterized by progressive distal muscle weakness and myotonia. Patients with DM1 have abnormal lipid metabolism and a high propensity to develop a metabolic syndrome in comparison to the general population. It follows that metabolome evaluation in these patients is crucial and may contribute to a better characterization and discrimination between DM1 disease phenotypes and severities. Several experimental approaches are possible to carry out such an analysis; among them is Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) which evaluates metabolic profiles by categorizing samples through their biochemical composition. In this study, FTIR spectra were acquired and analyzed using multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis) using skin DM1 patient-derived fibroblasts and controls. The results obtained showed a clear discrimination between both DM1-derived fibroblasts with different CTG repeat length and with the age of disease onset; this was evident given the distinct metabolic profiles obtained for the two groups. Discrimination could be attributed mainly to the altered lipid metabolism and proteins in the 1800–1500 cm−1 region. These results suggest that FTIR spectroscopy is a valuable tool to discriminate both DM1-derived fibroblasts with different CTG length and age of onset and to study the metabolomic profile of patients with DM1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Mateus
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Idália Almeida
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Adriana Costa
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Diana Viegas
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Sandra Magalhães
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
- Department of Chemistry, Aveiro Institute of Materials (CICECO), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Filipa Martins
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Maria Teresa Herdeiro
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Odete A. B. da Cruz e Silva
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Carla Fraga
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar Tâmega e Sousa (CHTS), 4564-007 Penafiel, Portugal; (C.F.); (I.A.)
| | - Ivânia Alves
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar Tâmega e Sousa (CHTS), 4564-007 Penafiel, Portugal; (C.F.); (I.A.)
| | - Alexandra Nunes
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
| | - Sandra Rebelo
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (T.M.); (I.A.); (A.C.); (D.V.); (S.M.); (F.M.); (M.T.H.); (O.A.B.d.C.eS.); (A.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-924-406-306; Fax: +351-234-372-587
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7
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Mateus T, Martins F, Nunes A, Herdeiro MT, Rebelo S. Metabolic Alterations in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 and Their Correlation with Lipin. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041794. [PMID: 33673200 PMCID: PMC7918590 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is an autosomal dominant hereditary and multisystemic disease, characterized by progressive distal muscle weakness and myotonia. Despite huge efforts, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying DM1 remain elusive. In this review, the metabolic alterations observed in patients with DM1 and their connection with lipin proteins are discussed. We start by briefly describing the epidemiology, the physiopathological and systemic features of DM1. The molecular mechanisms proposed for DM1 are explored and summarized. An overview of metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, and the summary of metabolic alterations observed in patients with DM1 are presented. Patients with DM1 present clinical evidence of metabolic alterations, namely increased levels of triacylglycerol and low-density lipoprotein, increased insulin and glucose levels, increased abdominal obesity, and low levels of high-density lipoprotein. These metabolic alterations may be associated with lipins, which are phosphatidate phosphatase enzymes that regulates the triacylglycerol levels, phospholipids, lipid signaling pathways, and are transcriptional co-activators. Furthermore, lipins are also important for autophagy, inflammasome activation and lipoproteins synthesis. We demonstrate the association of lipin with the metabolic alterations in patients with DM1, which supports further clinical studies and a proper exploration of lipin proteins as therapeutic targets for metabolic syndrome, which is important for controlling many diseases including DM1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sandra Rebelo
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-924-406-306; Fax: +351-234-372-587
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Sugawara S, Kanamaru Y, Sekine S, Maekawa L, Takahashi A, Yamamoto T, Watanabe K, Fujisawa T, Hattori K, Ichijo H. The mitochondrial protein PGAM5 suppresses energy consumption in brown adipocytes by repressing expression of uncoupling protein 1. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:5588-5601. [PMID: 32144202 PMCID: PMC7186182 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a potential therapeutic target for managing obesity and related diseases. PGAM family member 5, mitochondrial serine/threonine protein phosphatase (PGAM5), is a protein phosphatase that resides in the mitochondria and regulates many biological processes, including cell death, mitophagy, and immune responses. Because BAT is a mitochondria-rich tissue, we have hypothesized that PGAM5 has a physiological function in BAT. We previously reported that PGAM5-knockout (KO) mice are resistant to severe metabolic stress. Importantly, lipid accumulation is suppressed in PGAM5-KO BAT, even under unstressed conditions, raising the possibility that PGAM5 deficiency stimulates lipid consumption. However, the mechanism underlying this observation is undetermined. Here, using an array of biochemical approaches, including quantitative RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and oxygen consumption assays, we show that PGAM5 negatively regulates energy expenditure in brown adipocytes. We found that PGAM5-KO brown adipocytes have an enhanced oxygen consumption rate and increased expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a protein that increases energy consumption in the mitochondria. Mechanistically, we found that PGAM5 phosphatase activity and intramembrane cleavage are required for suppression of UCP1 activity. Furthermore, utilizing a genome-wide siRNA screen in HeLa cells to search for regulators of PGAM5 cleavage, we identified a set of candidate genes, including phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD), which catalyzes the formation of phosphatidylethanolamine at the mitochondrial membrane. Taken together, these results indicate that PGAM5 suppresses mitochondrial energy expenditure by down-regulating UCP1 expression in brown adipocytes and that its phosphatase activity and intramembrane cleavage are required for UCP1 suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Sugawara
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kanamaru
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Shiori Sekine
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Lila Maekawa
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Akinori Takahashi
- Cell Signal Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamoto
- Cell Signal Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan; Laboratory for Immunogenetics, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, 1-7-22 Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama City, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Kengo Watanabe
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takao Fujisawa
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Kazuki Hattori
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Hidenori Ichijo
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
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