Highly efficient enzymatic acetylation of flavonoids: Development of solvent-free process and kinetic evaluation

Synthesis and characterization of 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid esters and study of their efficacy in bulk fish oil

Lipophilization of natural antioxidants is a proven strategy to enhance the solubility in bulk oil systems, thereby increasing their efficacy against oxidative degradation. This study aims to synthesize esters of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (3,4-DHPA) using Amberlyst-15 and to study the application of these esters in refined fish oil. Lipophilic esters were synthesized by esterification and transesterification of 3,4-DHPA in various solvent systems. Esters of methanol, butanol and hexanol were obtained with percent conversion of 81.1, 69.3 and 78.8 respectively, and were subjected to molecular characterization and in vitro oxidant assays. The 3,4-DHPA and its methyl ester showed 36% reduction in the TOTOX value over 30 days of storage. The length of the acyl chain in the ester was found to exert a high influence on its efficacy and lipophilicity. This is the first report of 3,4-DHPA and its lipophilic esters studied for enhancing the oxidative stability of fish oil.

Comprehensive Review of EGCG Modification: Esterification Methods and Their Impacts on Biological Activities

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the key constituent of tea polyphenols, presents challenges in terms of its lipid solubility, stability, and bioavailability because of its polyhydroxy structure. Consequently, structural modifications are imperative to enhance its efficacy. This paper comprehensively reviews the esterification techniques applied to EGCG over the past two decades and their impacts on bioactivities. Both chemical and enzymatic esterification methods involve catalysts, solvents, and hydrophobic groups as critical factors. Although the chemical method is cost-efficient, it poses challenges in purification; on the other hand, the enzymatic approach offers improved selectivity and simplified purification processes. The biological functions of EGCG are inevitably influenced by the structural changes incurred through esterification. The antioxidant capacity of EGCG derivatives can be compromised under certain conditions by reducing hydroxyl groups, while enhancing lipid solubility and stability can strengthen their antiviral, antibacterial, and anticancer properties. Additionally, esterification broadens the utility of EGCG in food applications. This review provides critical insights into developing cost-effective and environmentally sustainable selective esterification methods, as well as emphasizes the elucidation of the bioactive mechanisms of EGCG derivatives to facilitate their widespread adoption in food processing, healthcare products, and pharmaceuticals.

Immobilization of Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase in a novel polysaccharide-based hydrogel by a two-step crosslinking method and its use in the lauroylation of α-arbutin

The Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (TLLs) was successfully immobilized within a novel hydrogel matrix through a two-step crosslinking method. TLLs were initially crosslinked through the Schiff base reaction by oxidized carboxymethyl cellulose (OCMC). The water-soluble OCMC@TLLs complex was subsequently crosslinked by carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCSH) in a microfluidic apparatus to form the CMCHS/OCMC@TLLs microspheres. The CD (Circular Dichroism, CD) and FT-IR (Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, FT-IR) spectra demonstrated that the crosslinking of TLLs with OCMC resulted in a less significant impact on their structure compared to that with glutaraldehyde. CMCHS/OCMC@TLLs showed decreased catalytic performance due to the mass transfer resistance, while its thermal stability was greatly improved. The CMCHS/OCMC@TLLs were used to catalyze the lauroylation of arbutin in tetrahydrofuran. After 12 h of reaction under optimal conditions, the yield of 6'-O-lauryl arbutin reached an impressive 92.12%. The prepared 6'-O-lauryl arbutin has high lipophilicity and exhibits similar tyrosinase inhibitory activity and higher antioxidant activity compared to its parent compound.

Modification of flavonoids: methods and influences on biological activities

Flavonoids are important active ingredients in plant-based food, which have many beneficial effects on health. But the low solubility, poor oral bioavailability, and inferior stability of many flavonoids may limit their applications in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Structural modification can overcome these shortcomings to improve and extend the application of flavonoids. The study of how to modify flavonoids and the influence of various modifications on biological activity have drawn great interest in the current literature. In this review, the working principles and operating conditions of modification methods were summarized along with their potential and limitations in terms of operational safety, cost, and productivity. The influence of various modifications on biological activities and the structure-activity relationships of flavonoids derivatives were discussed and highlighted, which may give guidance for the synthesis of highly effective active agents. In addition, the safety of flavonoids derivatives is reviewed, and future research directions of flavonoid modification research are discussed.

Biocatalytic Approaches for an Efficient and Sustainable Preparation of Polyphenols and Their Derivatives

Many sectors of industry, such as food, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals, have increased their interest in polyphenols due to their beneficial properties. These molecules are widely found in Nature (plants) and can be obtained through direct extraction from vegetable matrices. Polyphenols introduced through the diet may be metabolized in the human body via different biotransformations leading to compounds having different bioactivities. In this context, enzyme-catalyzed reactions are the most suitable approach to produce modified polyphenols that not only can be studied for their bioactivity but also can be labeled as green, natural products. This review aims to give an overview of the potential of biocatalysis as a powerful tool for the modification of polyphenols to enhance their bioaccessibility, bioavailability, biological activity or modification of their physicochemical properties. The main polyphenol transformations occurring during their metabolism in the human body have been also presented.

Highly efficient whole-cell biosynthesis and cytotoxicity of esculin esters

Esculin is a polyphenol with multiple bioactivities and poor lipophilicity. Therefore, a whole-cell catalytic strategy for esculin acylation was developed to improve its lipophilicity. A total of 12 strains were tested, among which Pseudomonas stutzeri exhibited the highest catalytic activity and mono-acylated regioselectivity. The conversion reached the highest level of 92.7 % at 24 h under the optimal conditions, when vinyl acetate was used as an acyl donor. The catalytic ability of P. stutzeri remained above 60 % after three cycles. Subsequently, five esculin esters with different lengths of fatty chains were synthesized and structurally identified. Of them, esculin-6'-O-octanoate, esculin-6'-O-laurate, and esculin-6'-O-myristate exhibited cytotoxicity on LO2 cells by inducing apoptosis and necrosis. The cytotoxicity of these three esters may attribute to their membrane-disrupting properties. This study provides a novel whole-cell biocatalytic strategy for the acylation of esculin and insight for application of esculin esters as a food additive or drug.

Scalable Green Approach Toward Fragrant Acetates

The advantageous properties of ethylene glycol diacetate (EGDA) qualify it as a useful substitute for glycerol triacetate (GTA) for various green applications. We scrutinised the lipase-mediated acetylation of structurally diverse alcohols in neat EGDA furnishing the range of naturally occurring fragrant acetates. We found that such enzymatic system exhibits high reactivity and selectivity towards activated (homo) allylic and non-activated primary/secondary alcohols. This feature was utilised in the scalable multigram synthesis of fragrant (Z)-hex-3-en-1-yl acetate in 70% yield. In addition, the Lipozyme 435/EGDA system was also found to be applicable for the chemo-selective acetylation of (hydroxyalkyl) phenols as well as for the kinetic resolution of chiral secondary alcohols. Lastly, its discrimination power was demonstrated in competitive experiments of equimolar mixtures of two isomeric alcohols. This enabled the practical synthesis of 1-pentyl acetate isolated as a single product in 68% yield from the equimolar mixture of 1-pentanol and 3-pentanol.

Significantly Enhanced Synthesis of Aromatic Esters of Arbutin Catalyzed by Immobilized Lipase in Co-solvent Systems

Highly efficient and regioselective synthesis of pharmacologically interesting aromatic esters of arbutin catalyzed by immobilized lipase from Penicillium expansum in co-solvent systems was successfully carried out. As compared to tetrahydrofuran solvent, the initial rate and substrate conversion of arbutin vanilylation were markedly enhanced in tetrahydrofuran-isopropyl ether (20%, v/v). Moreover, the effects of three reaction parameters (enzyme amount, temperature and substrate molar ratio of vinyl vanillic acid to arbutin) on 6′-O-vanilloyl-arbutin synthesis were scrutinized and the key process parameters were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). The experimental data were fitted well to a second order polynomial model by using multiple regression analysis. The best combination of variables was 50°C, 93 U/mL and 11 for the reaction temperature, the enzyme amount and mole ratio of arbutin to vinyl vanilic acid, respectively, and which the reaction rate, substrate conversion and regioselectivity were as high as 8.2 mM/h, 93 and 99%. It was worth noting that a variety of aromatic esters of arbutin were obtained with much higher conversion (93–99%) at these optimal conditions.

Thermal Analysis of Nigerian Oil Palm Biomass with Sachet-Water Plastic Wastes for Sustainable Production of Biofuel

Nigeria, being the world’s largest importer of diesel-powered gen-sets, is expected to invest in bio-fuels in the future. Hence, it is important to examine the thermal properties and synergy of wastes for potential downstream resource utilization. In this study, thermal conversion as a route to reduce the exploding volume of wastes from sachet-water plastic (SWP) and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) biomass was studied. Thermogravimetric (TGA) and subsequent differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) was used for the analysis. The effect of heating rate at 20 °C min−1 causes the increase of activation energy of the decomposition in the first-stage across all the blends (0.96 and 16.29 kJ mol−1). A similar phenomenon was seen when the heating rate was increased from 10 to 20 °C min−1 in the second-stage of decomposition. Overall, based on this study on the synergistic effects during the process, it can be deduced that co-pyrolysis can be an effective waste for energy platform.