Simultaneous delivery of doxorubicin and curcumin encapsulated in liposomes of pegylated RGDK-lipopeptide to tumor vasculature

Review on anti-tumour lipid nano drug delivery systems of traditional Chinese medicine

In recent years, the use of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the treatment of cancer has received widespread attention. Treatment of tumours using TCM can effectively reduce the side effects of anti-tumour drugs, meanwhile to improve the treatment efficacy of patients. However, most of the active ingredients in TCM, such as saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, volatile oils, etc., have defects such as low bioavailability and poor solubility in clinical application, which seriously restrict the application of TCM. Meanwhile, the encapsulation of TCM into lipid nano-delivery systems for cancer therapy has received much attention. Lipid nano-delivery systems are obtained by using phospholipids as the base material and adding other auxiliary materials under a certain preparation process, including, for example, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), microemulsions, and self-microemulsion drug delivery systems (SMEDDS), can resolve the application problems of TCM by improving the efficacy of active ingredients of TCM and reducing the toxicity of anti-tumour drugs. This paper focuses on the categories, development status, and research progress of lipid nano delivery system of TCM, aiming to provide a certain theoretical basis for further in-depth research and rational application of these systems.

Supramolecular approaches for the treatment of hypoxic regions in tumours

Supramolecular chemistry provides a range of 'weak' intermolecular interactions that allow drugs and prodrugs to self-assemble. In the complex biological setting of blood and tumours, these interactions must be stable enough for efficient and selective drug delivery to the tumour site, but weak enough to allow the release of the cytotoxic load. The non-covalent nature of supramolecular interactions enables the detachment of smaller (pro)drug monomers that can penetrate cancer cells differently to the original nanoparticles. Hypoxic tumours show low oxygen levels due to poor vascularization, which poses challenges for drug delivery and generates biological resistances. Supramolecular building blocks specifically designed for hypoxic tumours offer targeted activation of prodrug self-assemblies, enhancing effectiveness against hypoxic cancer cells and hypoxic regions in tumours. This Review explores how supramolecular chemistry can improve (pro)drug delivery and activation in hypoxic tumours.

Peptide-modified nanoparticles for doxorubicin delivery: Strategies to overcome chemoresistance and perspectives on carbohydrate polymers

Chemotherapy serves as the primary treatment for cancers, facing challenges due to the emergence of drug resistance. Combination therapy has been developed to combat cancer drug resistance, yet it still suffers from lack of specific targeting of cancer cells and poor accumulation at the tumor site. Consequently, targeted administration of chemotherapy medications has been employed in cancer treatment. Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most frequently used chemotherapeutics, functioning by inhibiting topoisomerase activity. Enhancing the anti-cancer effects of DOX and overcoming drug resistance can be accomplished via delivery by nanoparticles. This review will focus on the development of peptide-DOX conjugates, the functionalization of nanoparticles with peptides, the co-delivery of DOX and peptides, as well as the theranostic use of peptide-modified nanoparticles in cancer treatment. The peptide-DOX conjugates have been designed to enhance the targeted delivery to cancer cells by interacting with receptors that are overexpressed on tumor surfaces. Moreover, nanoparticles can be modified with peptides to improve their uptake in tumor cells via endocytosis. Nanoparticles have the ability to co-deliver DOX along with therapeutic peptides for enhanced cancer treatment. Finally, nanoparticles modified with peptides can offer theranostic capabilities by facilitating both imaging and the delivery of DOX (chemotherapy).

Self-assembled Lipid Nanoparticles for Killing Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Triple negative breast cancers (TNBCs) lacking estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) on their cell surfaces are highly aggressive, difficult-to-treat and often relapse. Herein, we report on the self-assembled lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) of two new pegylated lipopeptides for killing TNBCs (MDA-MB-231). The pegylated lipopeptides were synthesized by conjugating an n-hexadecyl hydrophobic tail to one end of a (PEG)27 unit the other distal end of which was covalently grafted with two previously reported tumor targeting RGDK- and CGKRK- peptides. The SEM images of the self-assembled LNPs formed upon dissolution of the pegylated lipopeptides in aqueous medium revealed formation of spherical aggregates. The degree of cellular uptake for the self-assembled LNPs formed by the pegylated CGKRK-lipopeptide were found to be significantly higher than that for the self-assembled LNPs formed by the pegylated RGDK-lipopeptide in MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, HEK-293 and HFF cells. Notably, about 60 % TNBCs (MDA-MB-231 cells) were killed upon treatment with commercially available potent JAK2 inhibitor (WP 1066) loaded LNPs of the pegylated RGDK-lipopeptide. Contrastingly, the same treatment killed only about 20 % non-cancerous HEK-293 cells. The self-assembled pegylated LNPs described herein open the door for undertaking preclinical studies in animal models for TNBCs.

A Targeted and Responsive Nanoprodrug Delivery System for Synergistic Glioma Chemotherapy

Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used as a chemotherapeutic agent for both hematologic and solid tumors and is a reasonable candidate for glioma treatment. However, its effectiveness is hindered by significant toxicity and drug resistance. Moreover, the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) brings a crucial challenge to glioma therapy. In response, a GSH-responsive and actively targeted nanoprodrug delivery system (cRGD/PSDOX-Cur@NPs) are developed. In this system, a disulfide bond-bridged DOX prodrug (PEG-SS-DOX) is designed to release specifically in the high glutathione (GSH) tumor environment, markedly reducing the cardiotoxicity associated with DOX. To further address DOX resistance, curcumin, serving as a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor, effectively increased cellular DOX concentration. Consequently, cRGD/PSDOX-Cur@NPs exhibited synergistic anti-tumor effects in vitro. Furthermore, in vivo experiments validated the superior BBB penetration and brain-targeting abilities of cRGD/PSDOX-Cur@NPs, showcasing the remarkable potential for treating both subcutaneous and orthotopic gliomas. This research underscores that this nanoprodrug delivery system presents a novel approach to inhibiting glioma while addressing resistance and systemic toxicity.

Relative biomembrane fusogenicities of the tumor-selective liposomes of RGDK- and CGKRK-lipopeptides

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally after heart diseases. Currently used highly cytotoxic anti-cancer drugs not only kill cancer cells but also often kill non-cancerous healthy body cells, causing adverse side effects. Efforts are now being directed towards developing tumor-selective chemotherapy. Tumor/tumor endothelial cell selective peptide ligands are being covalently grafted onto the exo-surfaces of drug carriers such as liposomes, polymers, etc. A number of prior studies used conjugation of tumor/tumor endothelial cell-selective RGDK- or CGKRK-peptide ligands on the outer surfaces of liposomes, metal-based nanoparticles, single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), etc. However, studies aimed at examining the relative cell membrane fusogenicities and the relative degrees of cellular uptake for the RGDK- and CGKRK-ligand-grafted nanometric drug carriers have not yet been undertaken. Herein, using the widely used liposomes of DOPC, DOPE, DOPS and cholesterol (45 : 25 : 20 : 15, w/w ratio) as the model biomembranes and the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay for measuring membrane fusogenicities, we show that the liposomes of the RGDK-lipopeptide are more biomembrane fusogenic than the liposomes of the CGKRK-lipopeptide. Notably, such FRET assay-derived relative biomembrane fusogenicities of the liposomes of RGDK- and CGKRK-lipopeptides were found to be consistent with their relative degrees of cellular uptake in cultured cancer cells. The present findings open the door for undertaking in-depth in vivo studies aimed at evaluating the relative therapeutic potential of different nanocarriers of drugs/genes/siRNA having tumor-targeting RGDK- and CGKRK-peptides on their exo-surfaces.

Blood-Nanoparticle Interactions Create a Brain Delivery Superhighway for Doxorubicin

Purpose

This study investigated the brain targeting mechanism of doxorubicin-loaded polybutyl cyanoacrylate (PBCA) nanoparticles, particularly their interactions with the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB protects the brain from drugs in the bloodstream and represents a crucial obstacle in the treatment of brain cancer.

Methods

An advanced computer model analyzed the brain delivery of two distinct formulations, Doxil® and surfactant-coated PBCA nanoparticles. Computational learning was combined with in vitro release and cell interaction studies to comprehend the underlying brain delivery pathways.

Results

Our analysis yielded a surprising discovery regarding the brain delivery mechanism of PBCA nanoparticles. While Doxil® exhibited the expected behavior, accumulating in the brain through extravasation in tumor tissue, PBCA nanoparticles employed a unique and previously uncharacterized mechanism. They underwent cell hitchhiking, resulting in a remarkable more than 1000-fold increase in brain permeation rate compared to Doxil® (2.59 × 10-4 vs 0.32 h-1).

Conclusion

The nonspecific binding to blood cells facilitated and intensified interactions of surfactant-coated PBCA nanoparticles with the vascular endothelium, leading to enhanced transcytosis. Consequently, the significant increase in circulation time in the bloodstream, coupled with improved receptor interactions, contributes to this remarkable uptake of doxorubicin into the brain.

Composition, preparation methods, and applications of nanoniosomes as codelivery systems: a review of emerging therapies with emphasis on cancer

Nanoniosome-based drug codelivery systems have become popular therapeutic instruments, demonstrating tremendous promise in cancer therapy, infection treatment, and other therapeutic domains. An emerging form of vesicular nanocarriers, niosomes are self-assembling vesicles composed of nonionic surfactants, along with cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. This comprehensive review focuses on how nanosystems may aid in making anticancer and antibacterial pharmaceuticals more stable and soluble. As malleable nanodelivery instruments, the composition, types, preparation procedures, and variables affecting the structure and stability of niosomes are extensively investigated. In addition, the advantages of dual niosomes for combination therapy and the administration of multiple medications simultaneously are highlighted. Along with categorizing niosomal drug delivery systems, a comprehensive analysis of various preparation techniques, including thin-layer injection, ether injection, and microfluidization, is provided. Dual niosomes for cancer treatment are discussed in detail regarding the codelivery of two medications and the codelivery of a drug with organic, plant-based bioactive compounds or gene agents. In addition, niogelosomes and metallic niosomal carriers for targeted distribution are discussed. The review also investigates the simultaneous delivery of bioactive substances and gene agents, including siRNA, microRNA, shRNA, lncRNA, and DNA. Additional sections discuss the use of dual niosomes for cutaneous drug delivery and treating leishmanial infections, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The study concludes by delineating the challenges and potential routes for nanoniosome-based pharmaceutical codelivery systems, which will be useful for nanomedicine practitioners and researchers.

Biomaterial-Based Responsive Nanomedicines for Targeting Solid Tumor Microenvironments

Solid tumors are composed of a highly complex and heterogenic microenvironment, with increasing metabolic status. This environment plays a crucial role in the clinical therapeutic outcome of conventional treatments and innovative antitumor nanomedicines. Scientists have devoted great efforts to conquering the challenges of the tumor microenvironment (TME), in respect of effective drug accumulation and activity at the tumor site. The main focus is to overcome the obstacles of abnormal vasculature, dense stroma, extracellular matrix, hypoxia, and pH gradient acidosis. In this endeavor, nanomedicines that are targeting distinct features of TME have flourished; these aim to increase site specificity and achieve deep tumor penetration. Recently, research efforts have focused on the immune reprograming of TME in order to promote suppression of cancer stem cells and prevention of metastasis. Thereby, several nanomedicine therapeutics which have shown promise in preclinical studies have entered clinical trials or are already in clinical practice. Various novel strategies were employed in preclinical studies and clinical trials. Among them, nanomedicines based on biomaterials show great promise in improving the therapeutic efficacy, reducing side effects, and promoting synergistic activity for TME responsive targeting. In this review, we focused on the targeting mechanisms of nanomedicines in response to the microenvironment of solid tumors. We describe responsive nanomedicines which take advantage of biomaterials' properties to exploit the features of TME or overcome the obstacles posed by TME. The development of such systems has significantly advanced the application of biomaterials in combinational therapies and in immunotherapies for improved anticancer effectiveness.

Multifunctional Microneedle Patches via Direct Ink Drawing of Nanocomposite Inks for Personalized Transdermal Drug Delivery

Additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing, allows decentralized drug fabrication of orally administered tablets. Microneedles are comparatively favorable for self-administered transdermal drug delivery with improved absorption and bioavailability. Due to the cross-scale geometric characteristics, 3D-printed microneedles face a significant trade-off between the feature resolution and production speed in conventional layer-wise deposition sequences. In this study, we introduce an economical and scalable direct ink drawing strategy to create drug-loaded microneedles. A freestanding microneedle is efficiently generated upon each pneumatic extrusion and controlled drawing process. Sharp tips of ∼5 μm are formed with submillimeter nozzles, representing 2 orders of magnitude improved resolution. As the key enabler of this fabrication strategy, the yield-stress fluid inks are formulated by simply filling silica nanoparticles into regular polymer solutions. The approach is compatible with various microneedles based on dissolvable, biodegradable, and nondegradable polymers. Various matrices are readily adopted to adjust the release behaviors of the drug-loaded microneedles. Successful fabrication of multifunctional patches with heterogeneously integrated microneedles allows the treatment of melanoma via synergistic photothermal therapy and combination chemotherapy. The personalized patches are designed for cancer severity to achieve high therapeutic efficacy with minimal side effects. The direct ink drawing reported here provides a facile and low-cost fabrication strategy for multifunctional microneedle patches for self-administering transdermal drug delivery.

Preparation, characterization, and Co-delivery of cisplatin and doxorubicin-loaded liposomes to enhance anticancer Activities

Ovarian cancer stands as a leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women globally. This malignancy has hindered successful treatment attempts due to its inherent resistance to chemotherapy agents. The utilization of cisplatin and doxorubicin-loaded liposomes emerges as a strategically advantageous approach in the realm of biomedical applications. This strategy holds promise for augmenting drug efficacy, mitigating toxicity, refining pharmacokinetics, and facilitating versatile drug delivery while accommodating combination therapies. In pursuit of scholarly investigations, the eminent databases, including PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar, were meticulously scrutinized. Within this study, a nano-liposomal formulation was meticulously designed to serve as a co-delivery system. This system was optimized by varying lipid concentrations, hydration time, and DSPC: cholesterol molar ratios to efficiently encapsulate and load doxorubicin (DOX) and cisplatin (CIS) to overcome drug resistance problems. The Lipo (CIS + DOX) formulation underwent rigorous characterization including dimensions, entrapment efficiencies and drug release kinetics. Notably, the entrapment efficiency of cisplatin and doxorubicin loaded liposomal nanoparticles was an impressive 85.29 ± 1.45 % and 73.62 ± 1.70 %, respectively. Furthermore, Lipo (CIS + DOX) drug release kinetics exhibited pH-dependent properties, with lower drug release rates at physiological pH (7.4) than acidic (pH 5.4). Subsequent cytotoxicity assays revealed the enhanced biocompatibility of dual-drug liposomes with HFF cells compared to free drug combinations. Impressively, CIS and DOX-loaded liposomes induced significant cytotoxicity against A2780 in comparison to free drugs and combinatorial free drugs. Furthermore, the CIS and DOX-loaded liposome showed induced apoptotic potential and cell cycle arrest in A2780 compared to CIS, DOX, and their combination (CIS + DOX). Combining CIS and DOX via liposomal nanoparticles introduces a promising therapeutic avenue for addressing ovarian cancer. These nano-scale carriers hold the potential for attenuating the untoward effects of singular drugs and their attendant toxicities.

Preparation of nano-sized multi-vesicular vesicles (MVVs) and its application in co-delivery of doxorubicin and curcumin

Multi-vesicular vesicles (MVVs) offer structural advantages in terms of drug encapsulation and physiological stability. In this study, we address the challenge of preparing small-sized MVVs for drug delivery. The nano-sized MVVs (∼120 nm) loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and curcumin (CUR) (DOX/CUR@MVVs) were successfully prepared using a glass bead combined with a thin film dispersion method. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis confirmed the independent non-homocentric vesicle structures of DOX/CUR@MVVs with homogeneous particle sizes. The experimental results showed high encapsulation rates of DOX and CUR in DOX/CUR@MVVs, reaching 82.5 ± 0.75 % and 85.9 ± 0.69 %, respectively. Moreover, the MVVs exhibited good biosafety and sustained release properties. Notably, the bioavailability of DOX and CUR in DOX/CUR@MVVs was enhanced compared to free DOX and CUR, with increases of 4.2 and 2.1 times, respectively. And the half-life of DOX and CUR was extended by 10 times in DOX/CUR@MVVs. In vivo antitumor experiments demonstrated that nano-sized DOX/CUR@MVVs significantly improved the antitumor activity while reducing the toxic side effects of DOX. Overall, the successful preparation of nano-sized DOX/CUR@MVVs and their potent and low-toxic antitumor effects provide a critical experimental reference for the combined antitumor therapy of MVVs and liposomes.

Nanostructures in Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) for potential therapy

With its long clinical history, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained acceptance for its specific efficacy and safety in the treatment of multiple diseases. Nano-sized materials study of Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) leads to an increased understanding of assessing TCM therapies, which may be a promising way to illustrate the material basis of CHMs through their processing and extraction. In this review, we provide an overview of the nanostructures of natural and engineered CHMs, including extracted CHMs, polymer nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, and nanofibers. Subsequently, the applications of these CHM-derived nanostructures to particular diseases are summarized and discussed. Additionally, we discuss the advantages of these nanostructures for studying the therapeutic efficacy of CHMs. Finally, the key challenges and opportunities for the development of these nanostructures are outlined.

Curcumin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles for drug delivery: synthesis, biological assays and therapeutic potential - a review

Curcumin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have shown promise as drug delivery systems to address the limited pharmacokinetic characteristics of curcumin. Functionalization with folic acid and PEGylation enhance anticancer activity, biocompatibility, stability, and permeability. Co-delivery with other drugs results in synergistically enhanced cytotoxic activity. Environment-responsive MSNs prevent undesirable drug leakage and increase selectivity towards target tissues. This review summarizes the methods of Cur-loaded MSN synthesis and functionalization and their application in various diseases, and also highlights the potential of Cur-loaded MSNs as a promising drug delivery system.

Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin Liposomes and Nanocrystals on Inflammatory Osteolysis: In Vitro and In Vivo Comparative Study

Curcumin could inhibit periprosthetic osteolysis induced by wear debris and adherent endotoxin, which commonly cause prosthesis loosening and negatively influence the long-term survival of joint arthroplasty. However, its limited water solubility and poor stability pose challenges for its further clinical application. To address these issues, we developed curcumin liposomes for intraarticular injection, as liposomes possess good lubricant capacity and pharmacological synergy with curcumin. Additionally, a nanocrystal dosage form was prepared to enable comparison with the liposomes based on their ability to disperse curcumin effectively. A microfluidic method was used for its controllability, repeatability, and scalability. The Box-Behnken Design was employed to screen the formulations and flow parameters, while computational fluid dynamics was used to simulate the mixing process and predict the formation of liposomes. The optimized curcumin liposomes (Cur-LPs) had a size of 132.9nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 97.1%, whereas the curcumin nanocrystals (Cur-NCs) had a size of 172.3nm. Both Cur-LPs and Cur-NCs inhibited LPS-induced pro-inflammatory polarization of macrophages and reduced the expression and secretion of inflammatory factors. The mouse air pouch model further demonstrated that both dosage forms attenuated inflammatory cell infiltration and inflammatory fibrosis in subcutaneous tissues. Interestingly, the anti-inflammatory effect of Cur-LPs was more potent than that of Cur-NCs, both in vitro and in vivo, although the cellular uptake of Cur-NCs was quicker. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that Cur-LPs have great potential for the clinical treatment of inflammatory osteolysis and that the therapeutic effect is closely related to the liposomal dosage form.

Natural Compounds: Co-Delivery Strategies with Chemotherapeutic Agents or Nucleic Acids Using Lipid-Based Nanocarriers

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, and latest predictions indicate that cancer- related deaths will increase over the next few decades. Despite significant advances in conventional therapies, treatments remain far from ideal due to limitations such as lack of selectivity, non-specific distribution, and multidrug resistance. Current research is focusing on the development of several strategies to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutic agents and, as a result, overcome the challenges associated with conventional therapies. In this regard, combined therapy with natural compounds and other therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapeutics or nucleic acids, has recently emerged as a new strategy for tackling the drawbacks of conventional therapies. Taking this strategy into consideration, the co-delivery of the above-mentioned agents in lipid-based nanocarriers provides some advantages by improving the potential of the therapeutic agents carried. In this review, we present an analysis of the synergistic anticancer outcomes resulting from the combination of natural compounds and chemotherapeutics or nucleic acids. We also emphasize the importance of these co-delivery strategies when reducing multidrug resistance and adverse toxic effects. Furthermore, the review delves into the challenges and opportunities surrounding the application of these co-delivery strategies towards tangible clinical translation for cancer treatment.

Codelivery of Phytochemicals with Conventional Anticancer Drugs in Form of Nanocarriers

Anticancer drugs in monotherapy are ineffective to treat various kinds of cancer due to the heterogeneous nature of cancer. Moreover, available anticancer drugs possessed various hurdles, such as drug resistance, insensitivity of cancer cells to drugs, adverse effects and patient inconveniences. Hence, plant-based phytochemicals could be a better substitute for conventional chemotherapy for treatment of cancer due to various properties: lesser adverse effects, action via multiple pathways, economical, etc. Various preclinical studies have demonstrated that a combination of phytochemicals with conventional anticancer drugs is more efficacious than phytochemicals individually to treat cancer because plant-derived compounds have lower anticancer efficacy than conventional anticancer drugs. Moreover, phytochemicals suffer from poor aqueous solubility and reduced bioavailability, which must be resolved for efficacious treatment of cancer. Therefore, nanotechnology-based novel carriers are employed for codelivery of phytochemicals and conventional anticancer drugs for better treatment of cancer. These novel carriers include nanoemulsion, nanosuspension, nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes that provide various benefits of improved solubility, reduced adverse effects, higher efficacy, reduced dose, improved dosing frequency, reduced drug resistance, improved bioavailability and higher patient compliance. This review summarizes various phytochemicals employed in treatment of cancer, combination therapy of phytochemicals with anticancer drugs and various nanotechnology-based carriers to deliver the combination therapy in treatment of cancer.

Multiple mechanisms of curcumin targeting spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is an irreversible disease process with a high disability and mortality rate. After primary spinal cord injury, the secondary injury may occur in sequence, which is composed of ischemia and hypoxia, excitotoxicity, calcium overload, oxidative stress and inflammation, resulting in massive death of parenchymal cells in the injured area, followed by the formation of syringomyelia. Effectively curbing the process of secondary injury can promote nerve repair and improve functional prognosis. As the main active ingredient in turmeric, curcumin can play an important role in reducing inflammation and oxidation, protecting the neurons, and ultimately reducing spinal cord injury. This article reviews the effects of curcumin on the repair of nerve injury, with emphasis on the various mechanisms by which curcumin promotes the treatment of spinal cord injury.

Modification of α-Tocopherol Succinate with a Tumor-targeting Peptide Conjugate Enhances the Antitumor Efficacy of a Paclitaxel-loaded Lipid Aggregate

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent in the clinic. However, its clinical benefit is limited due to its low water solubility, off-target toxicity, and for being a multidrug-resistant (MDR) substrate. To overcome these limitations in this study, a tumor-targeting peptide (CRGDK peptide, a ligand for NRP-1 receptor) conjugate of α-tocopheryl succinate (α-TOS) was synthesized and modified on PTX-loaded lipid aggregate (TL-PTX) to leverage the benefits of α-TOS, which include a) anti-cancer activity, b) increased PTX loading, and c) inhibition of MDR activity. Use of peptide conjugate of α-TOS (α-TOS-CRGDK) in lipid aggregate increased PTX entrapment efficiency by 20%, helped in NRP-1 specific cellular uptake and significantly enhanced apoptotic and cell killing activity (p <0.01) of PTX compared to control formulation (CL-PTX) by inhibiting MDR-activity in melanoma resulting in ∼70% increment in overall survival of melanoma tumor-bearing mice. In conclusion, CRGDK- α-TOS conjugate in association with PTX-loaded liposome provided a unique NRP-1 targeted, drug-resistant reversing anticancer regimen for treating aggressive melanoma.

The role of nanomaterials in enhancing natural product translational potential and modulating endoplasmic reticulum stress in the treatment of ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer, and particularly its most frequent type, epithelial ovarian carcinoma, constitutes one of the most dangerous malignant tumors among females. Substantial evidence has described the potential of phytochemicals against ovarian cancer. The effect of natural compounds on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is of great relevance in this regard. In ovarian cancer, the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER lumen results in decompensated ER stress. This leads to deregulation in the physiological processes for the posttranslational modification of proteins, jeopardizes cellular homeostasis, and increases apoptotic signaling. Several metabolites and metabolite extracts of phytochemical origin have been studied in the context of ER stress in ovarian cancer. Resveratrol, quercetin, curcumin, fucosterol, cleistopholine, fucoidan, and epicatechin gallate, among others, have shown inhibitory potential against ER stress. The chemical structure of each compound plays an important role concerning its pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and overall effectiveness. Studying and cross-comparing the chemical features that render different phytochemicals effective in eliciting particular anti-ER stress actions can help improve drug design or develop multipotent combination regimens. Many studies have also investigated the properties of formulations such as nanoparticles, niosomes, liposomes, and intravenous hydrogel based on curcumin and quercetin along with some other phytomolecules in ovarian cancer. Overall, the potential of phytochemicals in targeting genetic mechanisms of ovarian cancer warrants further translational and clinical investigation.

A Nanoparticle's Journey to the Tumor: Strategies to Overcome First-Pass Metabolism and Their Limitations

Simple Summary

Traditional cancer therapeutics suffer from off-target toxicity, limiting their effective dose and preventing patients’ tumors from being sufficiently treated by chemotherapeutics alone. Nanomedicine is an emerging class of therapeutics in which a drug is packaged into a nanoparticle that promotes uptake of the drug at a tumor site, shielding it from uptake by peripheral organs and enabling the safe delivery of chemotherapeutics that have poor aqueous solubility, short plasma half-life, narrow therapeutic window, and toxic side effects. Despite the advantages of nanomedicines for cancer, there remains significant challenges to improve uptake at the tumor and prevent premature clearance from the body. In this review, we summarize the effects of first-pass metabolism on a nanoparticle’s journey to a tumor and outline future steps that we believe will improve the efficacy of cancer nanomedicines.

Abstract

Nanomedicines represent the cutting edge of today’s cancer therapeutics. Seminal research decades ago has begun to pay dividends in the clinic, allowing for the delivery of cancer drugs with enhanced systemic circulation while also minimizing off-target toxicity. Despite the advantages of delivering cancer drugs using nanoparticles, micelles, or other nanostructures, only a small fraction of the injected dose reaches the tumor, creating a narrow therapeutic window for an otherwise potent drug. First-pass metabolism of nanoparticles by the reticuloendothelial system (RES) has been identified as a major culprit for the depletion of nanoparticles in circulation before they reach the tumor site. To overcome this, new strategies, materials, and functionalization with stealth polymers have been developed to improve nanoparticle circulation and uptake at the tumor site. This review summarizes the strategies undertaken to evade RES uptake of nanomedicines and improve the passive and active targeting of nanoparticle drugs to solid tumors. We also outline the limitations of current strategies and the future directions we believe will be explored to yield significant benefits to patients and make nanomedicine a promising treatment modality for cancer.

Doxorubicin nanoformulations on therapy against cancer: An overview from the last 10 years

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a natural antibiotic with antineoplastic activity. It has been used for over 40 years and remains one of the most used drugs in chemotherapy for a variety of cancers. However, cardiotoxicity limits its use for long periods. To overcome this limitation, encapsulation in smart drug delivery systems (DDS) brings advantages in comparison with free drug administration (i.e., conventional anticancer drug therapy). In this review, we present the most relevant nanostructures used for DOX encapsulation over the last 10 years, such as liposomes, micelles and polymeric vesicles (i.e., polymersomes), micro/nanoemulsions, different types of polymeric nanoparticles and hydrogel nanoparticles, as well as novel approaches for DOX encapsulation. The studies highlighted here show these nanoformulations achieved higher solubility, improved tumor cytotoxicity, prolonged DOX release, as well as reduced side effects, among other interesting advantages.

Targeting steroid hormone receptors for anti-cancer therapy-A review on small molecules and nanotherapeutic approaches

The steroid hormone receptors (SHRs) among nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) are steroid ligand-dependent transcription factors that play important roles in the regulation of transcription of genes promoted via hormone responsive elements in our genome. Aberrant expression patterns and context-specific regulation of these receptors in cancer, have been routinely reported by multiple research groups. These gave an window of opportunity to target those receptors in the context of developing novel, targeted anticancer therapeutics. Besides the development of a plethora of SHR-targeting synthetic ligands and the availability of their natural, hormonal ligands, development of many SHR-targeted, anticancer nano-delivery systems and theranostics, especially based on small molecules, have been reported. It is intriguing to realize that these cytoplasmic receptors have become a hot target for cancer selective delivery. This is in spite of the fact that these receptors do not fall in the category of conventional, targetable cell surface bound or transmembrane receptors that enjoy over-expression status. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is one such exciting SHR that in spite of it being expressed ubiquitously in all cells, we discovered it to behave differently in cancer cells, thus making it a truly druggable target for treating cancer. This review selectively accumulates the knowledge generated in the field of SHR-targeting as a major focus for cancer treatment with various anticancer small molecules and nanotherapeutics on progesterone receptor, mineralocorticoid receptor, and androgen receptor while selectively emphasizing on GR and estrogen receptor. This review also briefly highlights lipid-modification strategy to convert ligands into SHR-targeted cancer nanotherapeutics. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Coating function and stabilizing effects of surface layer protein from Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 on liposomes

Surface layer proteins (SLPs) are crystalline arrays in the outermost layer of cell envelope in many archaea and bacteria. SLPs subunits have the ability to reassemble on the surface of lipid layers. In this work, the SLP from Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 was extracted and reassembled on the surface of positively charged liposomes composed of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol and octadecylamine. Zeta potentials and particle size were determined to describe the adsorption process of SLP on liposomes. The liposomes completely coated with SLP were observed by transmission electron microscope. To investigate the stabilizing effects of SLP on liposomes, carboxyfluorescein (CF) was encapsulated and its leakage was determined as an evaluation index. The results showed that the L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 SLP significantly (P < 0.05) increased the stability of the liposomes in the course of thermal challenge. Furthermore, SLP was able to reduce the aggregation of liposomes in serum. Storage stability of liposomes was performed at 25 °C, 4 °C and -20 °C for 90 days. And the SLP-coated liposomes released less CF than the control liposomes during storage at the three evaluated temperatures. Our findings extended the application field of Lactobacillus SLPs and introduced a novel nanocarrier system with good chemical stability.

Ruthenium(II)-curcumin liposome nanoparticles: Synthesis, characterization, and their effects against cervical cancer

Ruthenium complexes have increased the scope for improvement in current cancer treatment by replacing platinum-based drugs. However, to reduce metal-associated toxicity, a biocompatible flavonoid, such as curcumin, is indispensable, as it offers uncompensated therapeutic benefits through formation of complexes. In this study, we synthesized metal-based flavonoid complexes using ruthenium(II) and curcumin by adopting a convenient reflux reaction, represented as Ru-Cur complexes. These complexes were thoroughly characterized using ¹H, ¹³C NMR, XPS, FT-IR, and UV-vis spectroscopy. As curcumin is sparingly soluble in water and has poor chemical stability, we loaded Ru-Cur complexes into liposomes and further formed nanoparticles (NPs) using the thin layer evaporation method. These were named Ru-Cur loaded liposome nanoparticles (RCLNPs). The effects of RCLNPs on cell proliferation was investigated using human cervical cancer cell lines (HeLa). These RCLNPs exhibited significant cytotoxicity in HeLa cells. The anticancer properties of RCLNPs were studied using reactive oxygen species (ROS), LDH, and MTT assays as well as live-dead staining. Nuclear damage studies of RCLNPs were performed in HeLa cells using the Hoechst staining assay.

Biochemical, Ameliorative and Cytotoxic Effects of Newly Synthesized Curcumin Microemulsions: Evidence from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Curcumin is known to exhibit antioxidant and tissue-healing properties and has recently attracted the attention of the biomedical community for potential use in advanced therapies. This work reports the formulation and characterization of oil-in-water F127 microemulsions to enhance the bioavailability of curcumin Microemulsions showed a high encapsulation efficiency and prolonged release. To investigate the interactions of curcumin with one unit of the polymeric chain of surfactant F127, ethyl butyrate, and sodium octanoate, as well as the interaction between ethyl butyrate and one unit of the F127 polymer chain, the Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations at the M06-2X level of theory, were performed in water solution. The MTT assay was used to assess the cytotoxicity of free and encapsulated curcumin on non-malignant and malignant cell lines. Combination effects were calculated according to Chou-Talalay's principles. Results of in vitro studies indicated that MCF7 and HepG2 cells were more sensitive to curcumin microemulsions. Moreover, a synergistic relationship was observed between curcumin microemulsions and cisplatin in all affected fractions of MCF7 and HepG2 cells (CI < 0.9). For in vivo investigation, thioacetamide-intoxicated rats received thioacetamide (100 mg/kg Sc) followed by curcumin microemulsions (30 mg/kg Ip). Thioacetamide-intoxicated rats showed elevated serum liver enzymes, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine levels, and a significant reduction in liver superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities (p < 0.05). Curcumin microemulsions reduced liver enzymes and serum creatinine and increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes in thioacetamide-treated rats in comparison to the untreated thioacetamide-intoxicated group. Histopathological investigations confirmed the biochemical findings. Overall, the current results showed the desirable hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and anti-cancer effects of curcumin microemulsions.

A review on liposome-based therapeutic approaches against malignant melanoma

Melanoma is a highly aggressive form of skin cancer with a very poor prognosis and excessive resistance to current conventional treatments. Recently, the application of the liposomal delivery system in the management of skin melanoma has been widely investigated. Liposomal nanocarriers are biocompatible and less toxic to host cells, enabling the efficient and safe delivery of different therapeutic agents into the tumor site and further promoting their antitumor activities. Therefore, the liposomal delivery system effectively increases the success of current melanoma therapies and overcomes resistance. In this review, we present an overview of liposome-based targeted drug delivery methods and highlight recent advances towards the development of liposome-based carriers for therapeutic genes. We also discuss the new insights regarding the efficacy and clinical significance of combinatorial treatment of liposomal formulations with immunotherapy and conventional therapies in melanoma patients for a better understanding and successfully managing cancer.

Optimized 5-Fluorouridine Prodrug for Co-Loading with Doxorubicin in Clinically Relevant Liposomes

Liposome-based drug delivery systems have allowed for better drug tolerability and longer circulation times but are often optimized for a single agent due to the inherent difficulty of co-encapsulating two drugs with differing chemical profiles. Here, we design and test a prodrug based on a ribosylated nucleoside form of 5-fluorouracil, 5-fluorouridine (5FUR), with the final purpose of co-encapsulation with doxorubicin (DOX) in liposomes. To improve the loading of 5FUR, we developed two 5FUR prodrugs that involved the conjugation of either one or three moieties of tryptophan (W) known respectively as, 5FUR−W and 5FUR−W₃. 5FUR−W demonstrated greater chemical stability than 5FUR−W3 and allowed for improved loading with fewer possible byproducts from tryptophan hydrolysis. Varied drug ratios of 5FUR−W: DOX were encapsulated for in vivo testing in the highly aggressive 4T1 murine breast cancer model. A liposomal molar ratio of 2.5 5FUR−W: DOX achieved a 62.6% reduction in tumor size compared to the untreated control group and a 33% reduction compared to clinical doxorubicin liposomes in a proof-of-concept study to demonstrate the viability of the co-encapsulated liposomes. We believe that the new prodrug 5FUR−W demonstrates a prodrug design with clinical translatability by reducing the number of byproducts produced by the hydrolysis of tryptophan, while also allowing for loading flexibility.

Tuftsin-Bearing Liposomes Co-Encapsulated with Doxorubicin and Curcumin Efficiently Inhibit EAC Tumor Growth in Mice

Background

Targeted multidrug-loaded delivery systems have emerged as an advanced strategy for cancer treatment. In this context, antibodies, hormones, and small peptides have been coupled to the surface of drug carriers, such as liposomes, polymeric and metallic nanoparticles loaded with drugs, as tumor-specific ligands. In the present study, we have grafted a natural macrophage stimulating peptide, tuftsin, on the surface of the liposomes (LPs) that were loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and/or curcumin (CUR), by attaching to its C-terminus a palmitoyl residue (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-CO-NH-(CH₂)₂-NH-COC₁₅H₃₁, P.Tuft) to enable its grafting within the liposome’s bilayer.

Methods

The prepared drug-loaded liposomes (DOX LPs, CUR LPs, DOX-CUR LPs, P.Tuft-LPs, P.Tuft-DOX LPs, P.Tuft-CUR LPs, P.Tuft-DOX-CUR LPs) were thoroughly characterised in terms of particle size, drug content, encapsulation efficiency and structural properties using UV–visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The anti-cancer activity and drug toxicity of the liposomal formulations were examined on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) tumor-induced mice model.

Results

A significant reduction in the tumor weight and volume was observed upon treating the tumor-bearing mice with palmitoyl tuftsin-grafted dual drug-loaded liposomes (P.Tuft-DOX-CUR LPs), as compared to the single drug/peptide-loaded formulation (DOX LPs, CUR LPs, DOX-CUR LPs, P.Tuft- LPs, P.Tuft-DOX LPs, P.Tuft-CUR LPs). Western blot analysis revealed that the tumor inhibition was associated with p53-mediated apoptotic pathway. Further, the biochemical and histological analysis revealed that the various liposomal preparation used in this study were non-toxic to the animals at the specified dose (10mg/kg).

Conclusion

In conclusion, we have developed a targeted liposomal formulation of P.Tuftsin-bearing liposomes co-encapsulated with effective anti-cancer drugs such as doxorubicin and curcumin. In experimental animals, tumor inhibition by P.Tuft-DOX-CUR LPs indicates the synergistic therapeutic effect of the peptide and the dual drug.

Synergistic effects of curcumin and its analogs with other bioactive compounds: A comprehensive review

Curcumin, as a natural compound, extracted from plant Curcuma longa, is abundant in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and have been used in a diverse array of pharmacological activities. Although curcumin has some limitations like low stability and low bioavailability, it has been proved that this compound induced apoptosis signaling and is also known to block cell proliferation signaling pathway. Recently, extensive research has been carried out to study the application of curcumin as a health improving agent, and devise new methods to overcome to the curcumin limitations and incorporate this functional ingredient into foods. Combinational chemotherapy is one of the basic strategies is using for 60 years for the treatment of various health problems like cancer, malaria, inflammation, diabetes and etc. Molecular hybridization is another strategy to make multi-pharmacophore or conjugated drugs with more synergistic effect than the parent compounds. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the pharmacological activity of curcumin and its analogs in combination with other bioactive compounds and cover more recent reports of anti-cancer, anti-malarial, and anti-inflammatory activities of these analogs.

Polychemotherapy with Curcumin and Doxorubicin via Biological Nanoplatforms: Enhancing Antitumor Activity

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a well-known chemotherapeutic agent extensively applied in the field of cancer therapy. However, similar to other chemotherapeutic agents such as cisplatin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, etoposide and oxaliplatin, cancer cells are able to obtain chemoresistance that limits DOX efficacy. In respect to dose-dependent side effect of DOX, enhancing its dosage is not recommended for effective cancer chemotherapy. Therefore, different strategies have been considered for reversing DOX resistance and diminishing its side effects. Phytochemical are potential candidates in this case due to their great pharmacological activities. Curcumin is a potential antitumor phytochemical isolated from Curcuma longa with capacity of suppressing cancer metastasis and proliferation and affecting molecular pathways. Experiments have demonstrated the potential of curcumin for inhibiting chemoresistance by downregulating oncogene pathways such as MMP-2, TGF-β, EMT, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB and AP-1. Furthermore, coadministration of curcumin and DOX potentiates apoptosis induction in cancer cells. In light of this, nanoplatforms have been employed for codelivery of curcumin and DOX. This results in promoting the bioavailability and internalization of the aforementioned active compounds in cancer cells and, consequently, enhancing their antitumor activity. Noteworthy, curcumin has been applied for reducing adverse effects of DOX on normal cells and tissues via reducing inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis. The current review highlights the anticancer mechanism, side effects and codelivery of curcumin and DOX via nanovehicles.

Efficacy of Combination Therapy with Linalool and Doxorubicin Encapsulated by Liposomes as a Two-in-One Hybrid Carrier System for Epithelial Ovarian Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a fatal gynecologic malignancy that is usually treated with chemotherapy after surgery. However, patients who receive chemotherapy experience severe side effects because of the inherent toxicity and high dose of chemotherapeutics. To overcome these issues, we suggest a combination therapeutic strategy using liposomes encapsulating linalool nanoemulsions (LN-NEs) and doxorubicin (DOX), a chemotherapeutic drug, to increase their synergistic antitumor efficacy and reduce the incidence of side effects from chemotherapeutics for EOC.

METHODS

The physical properties of LN-NE-DOX-liposomes were characterized by light scattering with a particle size analyzer. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. Therapeutic efficacy was evaluated in a mouse HeyA8 EOC tumor model of ovarian carcinoma. Additionally, biochemical toxicity was analyzed for levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) using BALB/c nude mice.

RESULTS

The size of the liposomes encapsulating LN-NEs and DOX (LN-NE-DOX-liposomes) was 267.0 ± 4.6 nm, with a loading efficiency of 55.1 ± 3.1% and 27.2 ± 0.9% for linalool and DOX, respectively. Cell viability after treatment with LN-NE-DOX-liposomes was significantly decreased compared to that of cells treated with DOX liposomes, and apoptosis was significantly increased. Additionally, LN-NE-DOX-liposomes significantly inhibited HeyA8 EOC tumor growth compared to that of the control (p < 0.01) and DOX-liposome-treated groups (p < 0.05), while decreasing cell proliferation (Ki67) and microvessel density (CD31), and promoting apoptosis (caspase-3) compared to the control (p < 0.05). Moreover, the liposomal formulations induced no significant differences in biochemical toxicity (AST, ALT, and BUN) compared to healthy control mice, indicating that the liposomal formulations showed no overt toxicity in mice.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that the production of LN-NE-DOX-liposomes is a pivotal approach for EOC treatment, suggesting a novel combination therapeutic strategy.

Efficiency of Different Treatment Regimens Combining Anti-tumor and Anti-inflammatory Liposomes for Metastatic Breast Cancer

Nanomedicines such as liposomes have been widely exploited in the treatment of tumors, and are also involved in combination therapies to enhance anti-tumor efficacy and reduce side effects. However, few studies have systematically discussed the significance and optimized regimens for nanomedicine-based combination therapy. In this study, we used anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor liposomes for co-administration, and compared three regimens: intermittent, metronomic, or sequential administration (IA, MA, and SA). The anti-inflammatory liposome HA/TN-CCLP was constructed in our previous research, which co-loaded curcumin (CUR) and celecoxib (CXB), modified with TAT-NBD peptide (TN) and finally coated with hyaluronic acid (HA), thereby inhibiting NF-κB and STAT3 pathways in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Furthermore, doxorubicin liposomes with and without TN modification (namely TN-DOXLP and DOXLP) were constructed and administrated with HA/TN-CCLP. The anti-tumor and anti-metastasis efficacy of different regimens was investigated. Results showed that in vitro cytotoxicity of DOXLP and TN-DOXLP was significantly enhanced when combined with HA/TN-CCLP. In vivo experiments also revealed the superiority of three combination therapies in inhibiting tumor growth, prolonging the survival of tumor-bearing mice, inducing apoptosis, and reducing lung metastases. In particular, the combination therapy could reduce MDSCs (Gr-1⁺/CD11b⁺) and CSCs (CD44⁺/CD24⁺) infiltration, which are two important factors in tumor metastasis and recurrence. Among three regimens, sequential administration (SA) showed the best therapeutic outcome and was especially effective for the inhibition of CSCs. In general, the results demonstrated that combination therapy, particularly the sequential administration of anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor liposome, was superior to monotherapy in inhibiting the development and metastasis of inflammation-related tumors.

Efficacy of Polymer-Based Nanocarriers for Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Selected Anticancer Drugs

Cancer remains a heavy health burden resulting in a high rate of mortality around the world. The presently used anticancer drugs suffer from several shortcomings, such as drug toxicity, poor biodegradability and bioavailability, and poor water solubility and drug resistance. Cancer is treated effectively by combination therapy whereby two or more anticancer drugs are employed. Most of the combination chemotherapies result in a synergistic effect and overcome drug resistance. Furthermore, the design of polymer-based nanocarriers for combination therapy has been reported by several researchers to result in promising therapeutic outcomes in cancer treatment. Curcumin exhibits good anticancer activity but its poor bioavailability has resulted in its incorporation into several polymer-based nanocarriers resulting in good biological outcomes. Furthermore, the incorporation of curcumin together with other anticancer drugs have been reported to result in excellent therapeutic outcomes in vivo and in vitro. Due to the potential of polymer-based nanocarriers, this review article will be focused on the design of polymer-based nanocarriers loaded with curcumin together with other anticancer drugs.

Cytotoxicity evaluation of curcumin-loaded affibody-decorated liposomes against breast cancerous cell lines

Curcumin is known as an effective anticancer herbal medicine but unfortunately, its bioavailability is poor which necessitate efforts for developing more efficient and specific delivery systems. Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER 2) due to its overexpression in various types of cancers, is demonstrated to be a good candidate as a target for anticancer therapy. In this study, cytotoxicity of curcumin encapsulated in ZHER2:342 Affibody-decorated liposome was investigated against SKBR3 and MCF-7 cancerous cell lines. Curcumin-containing liposomes were prepared from soybeans lecetin and cholesterol by thin-film hydration method. Affibody ZHER2:342 molecules via C-terminal cysteine residue were conjugated covalently to the prepared liposomes. Particle size analysis was performed using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Curcumin loading was measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometry and cytotoxic activity of curcumin formulations against cancerous cell lines was investigated by MTT assay. Induction of apoptosis was investigated using flow cytometry through Annexin V staining. Particle analysis showed the formation of spherical liposomes with a mean diameter of about 150 nm. Cytotoxic activity of curcumin was improved by its encapsulation in both liposomes and affibody-decorated liposomes. The Annexin V staining indicated the induction of apoptosis by affibody-decorated liposomes in both MCF-7 and SKBR3 cells. Decoration of curcumin-loaded liposomes with affibody ZHER2:342 may improve curcumin apoptotic function independently of HER2 expression level.

Multimodal Decorations of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Improved Cancer Therapy

The presence of leaky vasculature and the lack of lymphatic drainage of small structures by the solid tumors formulate nanoparticles as promising delivery vehicles in cancer therapy. In particular, among various nanoparticles, the mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) exhibit numerous outstanding features, including mechanical thermal and chemical stability, huge surface area and ordered porous interior to store different anti-cancer therapeutics with high loading capacity and tunable release mechanisms. Furthermore, one can easily decorate the surface of MSN by attaching ligands for active targeting specifically to the cancer region exploiting overexpressed receptors. The controlled release of drugs to the disease site without any leakage to healthy tissues can be achieved by employing environment responsive gatekeepers for the end-capping of MSN. To achieve precise cancer chemotherapy, the most desired delivery system should possess high loading efficiency, site-specificity and capacity of controlled release. In this review we will focus on multimodal decorations of MSN, which is the most demanding ongoing approach related to MSN application in cancer therapy. Herein, we will report about the recently tried efforts for multimodal modifications of MSN, exploiting both the active targeting and stimuli responsive behavior simultaneously, along with individual targeted delivery and stimuli responsive cancer therapy using MSN.

Nanomaterials innovation as an enabler for effective cancer interventions

Nanomedicines have been developing very rapidly and have started to play a significant role in several cancer therapeutic modalities. Early on, the nanomedicine field focused on optimizing pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and/or biodistribution of an agent through nanoparticle formulation. In other cases, where materials science is employed more decisively, nanomedicine can include the creation of new agents that take advantage of nanoscale materials properties to enhance treatment efficacy through unique mode of action, molecular targeting, or controlled drug release. Both current and future nanomedicines will seek to contribute to the therapeutic and diagnostic landscape through creative leveraging of mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic, and biological nanomaterial properties. In this work, we discuss how by modulating these material properties, one can design more diverse and more effective cancer interventions. We focus on six areas in cancer management, including in vitro diagnostics, clinical imaging, theranostics, combination therapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy.

Anticancer activities of phytoconstituents and their liposomal targeting strategies against tumor cells and the microenvironment

Various bioactive ingredients have been extracted from Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that affect tumor progression and metastasis. To further understand the mechanisms of CHMs in cancer therapy, this article summarizes the effects of five categories of CHMs and their active ingredients on tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. Despite their treatment potential, the undesirable physicochemical properties (poor permeability, instability, high hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, toxicity) and unwanted pharmacokinetic profiles (short half-life in blood and low bioavailability) restrict clinical studies of CHMs. Therefore, development of liposomes through relevant surface modifying techniques to achieve targeted CHM delivery for cancer cells, i.e., extracellular and intracellular targets and targets in tumor microenvironment or vasculature, have been reviewed. Current challenges of liposomal targeting of these phytoconstituents and future perspective of CHM applications are discussed to provide an informative reference for interested readers.

Combating Glioblastoma by Codelivering the Small-Molecule Inhibitor of STAT3 and STAT3siRNA with α5β1 Integrin Receptor-Selective Liposomes

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive tumors with a median survival of only 15 months. Effective therapeutics need to overcome the formidable challenge of crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Receptors and transporters overexpressed on BCECs are being used for designing liposomes, polymers, polymeric micelles, peptides, and dendrimer-based drug carriers for combating brain tumors. Herein, using the orthotopic mouse glioblastoma model, we show that codelivering a small-molecule inhibitor of the JAK/STAT pathway (WP1066) and STAT3siRNA with nanometric (100-150 nm) α5β1 integrin receptor-selective liposomes of RGDK-lipopeptide holds therapeutic promise in combating glioblastoma. Rh-PE (red)-labeled liposomes of RGDK-lipopeptide were found to be internalized in GL261 cells via integrin α5β1 receptors. Intravenously administered near-infrared (NIR)-dye-labeled α5β1 integrin receptor-selective liposomes of RGDK-lipopeptide were found to be accumulated preferentially in the mouse brain tumor tissue. Importantly, we show that iv injection of WP1066 (a commercially sold small-molecule inhibitor of the JAK/STAT pathway) and STAT3siRNA cosolubilized within the liposomes of RGDK-lipopeptide leads to significant inhibition (>350% compared to the untreated mice group) of orthotopically growing mouse glioblastoma. The present strategy may find future use in combating GBM.

Environmental stability and curcumin release properties of Pickering emulsion stabilized by chitosan/gum arabic nanoparticles

In recent years, the use of food grade natural biodegradable particles as Pickering emulsion stabilizer has attracted wide attentions. In this study, chitosan/gum Arabia (CS/GA) nanoparticles were prepared and their potential use in stabilizing Pickering emulsion and delivering curcumin were evaluated. It was found that CS and GA combined mainly through electrostatic interactions, and the obtained nanoparticles were about 100 nm of size and displayed higher surface activity than chitosan nanoparticles. Fluorescence microscopy showed that the nanoparticles accumulated at the oil-water interface. The environmental stability of Pickering emulsion got improved with the increase of nanoparticle concentration, and was sensitive to the changes of pH and ionic strength, while the emulsion remained stable under all test temperatures. The Pickering emulsion stabilized by 0.75% CS/GA nanoparticles displayed higher curcumin embedding rate of 94%, and also showed improved protection on curcumin during storage and controlled release during in vitro digestion. These results confirmed that the CS/GA nanoparticle stabilized-Pickering emulsion could be used as an effective deliver system for bioactive substances.

Amphetamine decorated cationic lipid nanoparticles cross the blood-brain barrier: therapeutic promise for combating glioblastoma

Combating brain tumors (glioblastoma multiforme or GBM) is a formidable challenge because of the existence of blood-brain barrier (BBB), a tight cellular junction that separates the central nervous system (CNS) and systemic circulation. Such a selectively permeable barrier prevents the entry of therapeutic molecules from blood circulation to brain parenchyma. Towards enhancing the efficacy of brain tumor-selective drug delivery without perturbing the BBB integrity, nanometric drug carriers are increasingly becoming an efficient therapeutic modality in preclinical studies. Psychostimulant drugs such as amphetamine and methylated amphetamine (METH) are known to penetrate the BBB. Still, little effort has been made to exploit them in nano-drug delivery, largely due to their toxicities. Herein, for the first time, we design, synthesize, and formulate three different β-amphetaminylated cationic lipid nanoparticles. We show that the β-amphetaminylated cationic lipid nanoparticles are nontoxic and can cross the BBB presumably through active transcytosis. The BBB penetrating ability also depends on the hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance of the lipids, with hexadecyl lipid (16-BACL) nanoparticle showing maximum accumulation in the brain. The lipid nanoparticle of 16-BACL can simultaneously encapsulate paclitaxel and PDL1-siRNA. The dual drug-loaded lipid nanoparticles showed apoptosis driven cellular cytotoxicity against GL261 cells and improved the overall survivability of orthotopic glioblastoma bearing mice compared to their non-targeting counterpart. The present work describes a new class of BBB-crossing lipid nanoparticles and delineates their therapeutic promise against glioblastoma.

Preparation, Physicochemical Properties, and In Vitro Toxicity towards Cancer Cells of Novel Types of Arsonoliposomes

Arsonoliposomes (ARSL) are liposomes that incorporate arsonolipids (ARS) in their membranes. They have demonstrated significant toxicity towards cancer cells, while being less toxic towards normal cells. In this study, we sought to investigate the possibility to prepare novel types of arsonoliposomes (ARSL) by incorporating a lipidic derivative of curcumin (TREG) in their membrane, and/or by loading the vesicles with doxorubicin (DOX). The final aim of our studies is to develop novel types of ARSL with improved pharmacokinetics/targeting potential and anticancer activity. TREG was incorporated in ARSL and their integrity during incubation in buffer and serum proteins was studied by monitoring calcein latency. After evaluation of TREG-ARSL stability, the potential to load DOX into ARSL and TREG-ARSL, using the active loading protocol, was studied. Loading was performed at two temperatures (40 °C and 60 °C) and different time periods of co-incubation (of empty vesicles with DOX). Calculation of DOX entrapment efficiency (%) was based on initial and final drug/lipid ratios. The cytotoxic activity of DOX-ARSL was tested towards B16F10 cells (mouse melanoma cells), LLC (Lewis Lung carcinoma cells), and HEK-293 (Human embryonic kidney cells). Results show that TREG-ARSL have slightly larger size but similar surface charge with ARSL and that they are both highly stable during storage at 4 °C for 56 d. Interestingly, the inclusion of TREG in ARSL conferred increased stability to the vesicles towards disruptive effects of serum proteins. The active-loading protocol succeeded to encapsulate high amounts of DOX into ARSL as well as TREG-LIP and TREG-ARSL, while the release profile of DOX from the novel liposome types was similar to that demonstrated by DOX-LIP. The cytotoxicity study results are particularly encouraging, since DOX-ARSL were less toxic towards the (normal) HEK cells compared to the two cancer cell-types. Furthermore, DOX-ARSL demonstrated lower toxicities (at all concentrations tested) for HEK cells, compared to that of the corresponding mixtures of free DOX and empty ARSL, while the opposite was true for the cancer cells (in most cases). The current results justify further in vivo exploitation of DOX-ARSL, as well as TREGARSL as anticancer therapeutic systems.

Zwitterionic Polymer Micelles with Dual Conjugation of Doxorubicin and Curcumin: Synergistically Enhanced Efficacy against Multidrug-Resistant Tumor Cells

This paper reports a novel redox-sensitive micellar system for the co-delivery of doxorubicin (Dox) and a chemosensitizer (curcumin, Cur) to overcome the multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells. Dox and Cur were co-conjugated onto a zwitterionic polymer, poly(carboxybetaine) (pCB), to form Cur-pCB-Dox that self-assembled into stable micelles (164.2 ± 4.8 nm). Single-drug conjugates (pCB-Dox and pCB-Cur) were prepared for comparisons. Compared to the high half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of Dox (437.2 μg/mL), the IC₅₀ value of pCB-Dox (14.1 μg/mL) was only 1/33 that of Dox. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry revealed the greatly enhanced cell uptake of the conjugate due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect of tumor cells on the micellar conjugate. Co-delivery of pCB-Dox with pCB-Cur further reduced the IC₅₀ value by 37% (8.9 μg/mL). More importantly, Cur-pCB-Dox exhibited the strongest cytotoxicity against MCF-7/Adr cells (IC₅₀, 5.87 μg/mL) because the co-delivered Dox and Cur on one carrier specifically transported into the same cells, which inhibited the efflux of Dox by Cur, led to a higher intracellular Dox concentration and made the drugs exert synergistic effects at the targeting regions. The results proved the zwitterionic micelles as promising drug co-delivery vehicles for fighting against MDR.