Therapeutic promises of ginkgolide A: A literature-based review

Ginkgo biloba and Its Chemical Components in the Management of Alzheimer's Disease

The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a degenerative disease of the central nervous system, remains unclear. The main manifestations of AD include cognitive and behavioral disorders, neuropsychiatric symptoms, neuroinflammation, amyloid plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles. However, current drugs for AD once the dementia stage has been reached only treat symptoms and do not delay progression, and the research and development of targeted drugs for AD have reached a bottleneck. Thus, other treatment options are needed. Bioactive ingredients derived from plants are promising therapeutic agents. Specifically, Ginkgo biloba (Gb) extracts exert anti-oxidant, anticancer, neuroplastic, neurotransmitter-modulating, blood fluidity, and anti-inflammatory effects, offering alternative options in the treatment of cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurodegenerative diseases. The main chemical components of Gb include flavonoids, terpene lactones, proanthocyanidins, organic acids, polysaccharides, and amino acids. Gb and its extracts have shown remarkable therapeutic effects on various neurodegenerative diseases, including AD, with few adverse reactions. Thus, high-quality Gb extracts are a well-established treatment option for AD. In this review, we summarize the insights derived from traditional Chinese medicine, experimental models, and emerging clinical trials on the role of Gb and its chemical components in the treatment of the main clinical manifestations of AD.

Biosynthesis of Chryseno[2,1,c]oxepin-12-Carboxylic Acid from Glycyrrhizic Acid in Aspergillus terreus TMZ05-2, and Analysis of Its Anti-inflammatory Activity

Glycyrrhizic acid, glycyrrhetinic acid, and their oxo, ester, lactone, and other derivatives, are known for their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and hypoglycemic pharmacological activities. In this study, chryseno[2,1-c]oxepin-12-carboxylic acid (MG) was first biosynthesized from glycyrrhizic acid through sequential hydrolysis, oxidation, and esterification using Aspergillus terreus TMZ05-2, providing a novel in vitro biosynthetic pathway for glycyrrhizic acid derivatives. Assessing the influence of fermentation conditions and variation of strains during culture under stress-induction strategies enhanced the final molar yield to 88.3% (5 g/L glycyrrhizic acid). CCK8 assays showed no cytotoxicity and good cell proliferation, and anti-inflammatory experiments demonstrated strong inhibition of NO release (36.3%, low-dose MG vs. model), transcriptional downregulation of classical effective cellular factors tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α; 72.2%, low-dose MG vs. model), interleukin-6 (IL-6; 58.3%, low-dose MG vs. model) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β; 76.4%, low-dose MG vs. model), and decreased abundance of P-IKK-α, P-IKB-α, and P-P65 proteins, thereby alleviating inflammatory responses through the NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. The findings provide a reference for the biosynthesis of lactone compounds from medicinal plants.

Update on new trends and progress of natural active ingredients in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease, based on understanding of traditional Chinese and Western relevant theories: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the major neurological disorders causing death in the elderly worldwide. As a neurodegenerative disease that is difficult to prevent and cure, the pathogenesis of AD is complex and there is no effective cure. A variety of natural products derived from plants have been reported to have promising anti-AD activities, including flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids and alkaloids, which can effectively relieve the symptoms of AD in a variety of ways. This paper mainly reviews the pharmacological activity and mechanisms of natural products against AD. Although the clinical efficacy of these plants still needs to be determined by further high-quality studies, it may also provide a basis for future researchers to study anti-AD in depth.

Ginkgolide A targets forkhead box O1 to protect against lipopolysaccharide-induced septic cardiomyopathy

Ginkgolide A (GA), a main terpenoid extracted from Ginkgo biloba, possesses biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and liver protection. However, the inhibitory effects of GA on septic cardiomyopathy remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the effects and mechanisms of GA in countering sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction and injury. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse model, GA alleviated mitochondrial injury and cardiac dysfunction. GA also significantly reduced the production of inflammatory and apoptotic cells, the release of inflammatory indicators, and the expression of oxidative stress-associated and apoptosis-associated markers, but increased the expression of pivotal antioxidant enzymes in hearts from LPS group. These results were consistent with those of in vitro experiments based on H9C2 cells. Database analysis and molecular docking suggested that FoxO1 was targeted by GA, as shown by stable hydrogen bonds formed between GA with SER-39 and ASN-29 of FoxO1. GA reversed LPS-induced downregulation of nucleus FoxO1 and upregulation of p-FoxO1 in H9C2 cells. FoxO1 knockdown abolished the protective properties of GA in vitro. KLF15, TXN2, NOTCH1, and XBP1, as the downstream genes of FoxO1, also exerted protective effects. We concluded that GA could alleviate LPS-induced septic cardiomyopathy via binding to FoxO1 to attenuate cardiomyocyte inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis.

The Potential of Ginkgo biloba as a Source of Biologically Active Compounds-A Review of the Recent Literature and Patents

Ginkgo biloba is a relict tree species showing high resistance to adverse biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Its fruits and leaves have high medicinal value due to the presence of flavonoids, terpene trilactones and phenolic compounds. However, ginkgo seeds contain toxic and allergenic alkylphenols. The publication revises the latest research results (mainly from 2018-2022) regarding the chemical composition of extracts obtained from this plant and provides information on the use of extracts or their selected ingredients in medicine and food production. A very important section of the publication is the part in which the results of the review of patents concerning the use of Ginkgo biloba and its selected ingredients in food production are presented. Despite the constantly growing number of studies on its toxicity and interactions with synthetic drugs, its health-promoting properties are the reason for the interest of scientists and motivation to create new food products.

Antiplatelet effect of ginkgo diterpene lactone meglumine injection in acute ischemic stroke: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

This study was designed to evaluate antiplatelet effect and therapeutic effect of ginkgo diterpene lactone meglumine injection (GDLI) in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we randomly assigned 70 inpatients within 48 hr after the onset of AIS to combination therapy with GDLI and aspirin (GDLI at a dose of 25 mg/d for 14 days plus aspirin at a dose of 100 mg/d for 90 days) or to placebo plus aspirin in a ratio of 1:1. Platelet function, the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), and the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) were evaluated. A good outcome was defined as NIHSS scores decrease ≥5 or mRS scores decrease ≥2. Results showed that arachidonic acid induced maximum platelet aggregation rate (AA-MAR) and mean platelet volume (MPV) of the GDLI-aspirin group were much lower than that of the aspirin group (p = 0.013 and p = 0.034, respectively) after the 14-day therapy. The combination of GDLI and aspirin was superior to aspirin alone, and had significant impact on the good outcome at day 90 (ORadj 7.21 [95%CI, 1.03-50.68], p = 0.047). In summary, GDLI has antiplatelet effect and can improve the prognosis of AIS patients.

Ginkgolide C attenuates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion-induced inflammatory impairments by suppressing CD40/NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been applied for thousands of years for the treatment of cardio-cerebral vascular diseases in China. It is written in Compendium of Materia Medica that Ginkgo has the property of "dispersing poison", which is now referred to as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Ginkgolides are important active ingredients in Ginkgo biloba leaves and ginkgolide injection has been frequently applied in clinical practice for the treatment of ischemic stroke. However, few studies have explored the effect and mechanism of ginkgolide C (GC) with anti-inflammatory activity in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CI/RI).

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to demonstrate whether GC was capable of attenuating CI/RI. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory effect of GC in CI/RI was explored around the CD40/NF-κB pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo, middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model was established in rats. The neuroprotective effect of GC was assessed by neurological scores, cerebral infarct rate, microvessel ultrastructure, blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, brain edema, neutrophil infiltration, and levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and iNOS. In vitro, rat brain microvessel endothelial cells (rBMECs) were preincubated in GC before hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) culture. The cell viability, levels of CD40, ICAM-1, MMP-9, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and activation of NF-κB pathway were examined. In addition, the anti-inflammatory effect of GC was also investigated by silencing CD40 gene in rBMECs.

RESULTS

GC attenuated CI/RI as demonstrated by decreasing neurological scores, reducing cerebral infarct rate, improving microvessel ultrastructural features, ameliorating BBB disruption, attenuating brain edema, inhibiting MPO activity, and downregulating levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and iNOS. Coherently, in rBMECs exposed to H/R GC enhanced cell viability and downregulated levels of ICAM-1, MMP-9, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Furthermore, GC suppressed CD40 overexpression and hindered translocation of NF-κB p65 from the cytosol to the nucleus, phosphorylation of IκB-α, and activation of IKK-β in H/R rBMECs. However, GC failed to protect rBMECs from H/R-induced inflammatory impairments and suppress activation of NF-κB pathway when CD40 gene was silenced.

CONCLUSIONS

GC attenuates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion-induced inflammatory impairments by suppressing CD40/NF-κB pathway, which may provide an available therapeutic drug for CI/RI.

γ-Aminobutyric acid promotes the inhibition of hair growth induced by chronic restraint stress

Stress plays a critical role in hair loss, although the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) has been reported to be associated with stress; however, whether it affects stress-induced hair growth inhibition is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the potential roles and mechanisms of action of GABA in chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced hair growth inhibition. We performed RNA-seq analysis and found that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, including genes related to GABA receptors, significantly changed after mice were treated with CRS. Targeted metabolomics analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) also showed that GABA levels in back skin tissues and serum significantly elevated in the CRS group. Notably, CRS-induced hair growth inhibition got aggravated by GABA and alleviated through GABA_A antagonists, such as picrotoxin and ginkgolide A. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that DEGs related to the cell cycle, DNA replication, purine metabolism, and pyrimidine metabolism pathways were significantly downregulated in dermal papilla (DP) cells after GABA treatment. Moreover, ginkgolide A, a GABA_A antagonist extracted from the leaves of Ginkgo biloba, promoted the cell cycle of DP cells. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that the increase in GABA could promote CRS-induced hair growth inhibition by downregulating the cell cycle of DP cells and suggested that ginkgolide A may be a promising therapeutic drug for hair loss.

Radical Scavenging Potential of Ginkgolides and Bilobalide: Insight from Molecular Modeling

The reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging capacities of ginkgolides and bilobalide, which are the peculiar constituents of the extract of Ginkgo biloba, are investigated in silico (level of theory: (SMD)-M06-2X/6-311+G(d,p)//M06-2X/6-31G(d)). Unlike other popular antioxidant natural substances, the carbon backbones of these compounds are entirely aliphatic and exclusively single C-C bonds are present. The selectivity for alkoxyl radicals via hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT) is assessed; importantly, the scavenging of peroxyl radicals is also possible from a peculiar site, here labeled C10 both for ginkgolides and bilobalide. The energetics are described in detail, and the analysis discloses that the studied compounds are powerful scavengers, with thermodynamic and kinetic properties similar to those of Trolox and melatonin, and that, in addition, they display selectivity for peroxyl radicals. These are all chemical-reactivity features contributing to the therapeutic action of the extract of G. biloba.

Effects of Organic Elicitors on the Recycled Production of Ginkgolide B in Immobilized Cell Cultures of Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo biloba is a medicinal plant used in complementary and alternative medicines. Ginkgo biloba extracts contain many compounds with medical functions, of which the most critical is ginkgolide B (GB). The major role that GB plays is to function as an antagonist to the platelet-activating factor, which is one of the causes of thrombosis and cardiovascular diseases. Currently, GB is obtained mainly through extraction and purification from the leaves of Ginkgo biloba; however, the yield of GB is low. Alternatively, the immobilized cultivation of ginkgo calluses with biomaterial scaffolds and the addition of organic elicitors to activate the cell defense mechanisms were found to stimulate increases in GB production. The aim of this study was to use Ginkgo biloba calluses for immobilized cultures with different elicitors to find a more suitable method of ginkgolide B production via a recycling process.

Study on Synergistic Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Typical Functional Components of Extracts of Ginkgo Biloba Leaves

There are some differences in the anti-inflammatory activities of four typical components in EGB (extracts of ginkgo biloba leaves), and there is also a synergistic relationship. The order of inhibiting the NO-release ability of single functional components is OA > GF > OPC > G. Ginkgolide (G), proanthocyanidins (OPC), and organic acids (OA) all have synergistic effects on ginkgo flavonoids (GF). GF:OA (1:9) is the lowest interaction index among all complexes, showing the strongest synergy. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of the compound affects the expression of p-JNK, p-P38, and p-ERK1/2 proteins by inhibiting the expression of iNOS and COX2 genes on NFKB and MAPK pathways. This also provides a research basis for the development of anti-inflammatory deep-processing products of EGB.

Quality evaluation of ginkgo biloba leaves based on non-targeted metabolomics and representative ingredient quantification

Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) combined with multivariate statistical analysis was applied to the study of plant metabolomics to reveal the factors affecting the content of ginkgo leaf compounds. As a follow-up analysis, the terpene lactones and ginkgolic acids were quantified simultaneously using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqQ-MS/MS), and subsequently total flavonol glycosides were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results revealed that a total of 52 compounds were potentially identified by establishing a database, and 10 compounds were verified by reference standards; terpene lactones, ginkgolic acids, and flavonoids were the differential compounds; and ginkgolide A was identified as an important indicator compound for tree age. In addition, quantitative analysis showed that the contents of total flavonol glycosides and terpene lactones were highest during April and August in young ginkgo leaves, and differed based on origin. In summary, numerous compounds were rapidly detected by liquid chromatography coupled with MS, the ginkgo leaf samples were compared, and the differential metabolites were screened out. The content changing rules of the target compounds in ginkgo leaves from different regions with different tree ages and harvesting periods were clarified.

Ginkgolide A downregulates transient receptor potential (melastatin) 2 to protect cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury in rats through the TWEAK/Fn14 pathway: Ginkgolide A improve acute renal injury

PURPOSE

In order to seek effective drugs for treating cisplatin-induced acute renal injury and explore the corresponding potential mechanism.

METHODS

Mouse kidney injury model was established by intraperitoneal injection of 20 mg/kg cisplatin. The temporal expression of TRPM2 and the regulation of Ginkgolide A on its expression were analyzed by western blot. In order to perform the mechanical analysis, we used TRPM2-KO knockout mice. In this study, we evaluated the repair effect of GA on acute kidney injury through renal function factors, inflammatory factors and calcium and potassium content. Pathological injury and cell apoptosis were detected by H&E and TUNEL, respectively.

RESULT

Ginkgolide A inhibited inflammatory reaction and excessive oxidative stress, reduced renal function parameters, and improved pathological injury. Meanwhile, we also found that the repair effect of Ginkgolide A on renal injury is related to TRPM2, and Ginkgolide A downregulated TRPM2 expression and inactivated TWEAK/Fn14 pathway in cisplatin-induced renal injury model. We also found that inhibition of TWEAK/Fn14 pathway was more effective in TRPM2-KO mice than TRPM2-WT mice.

CONCLUSION

Ginkgolide A was the effective therapeutic drug for cisplatin-induced renal injury through acting on TRPM2, and TWEAK/Fn14 pathway was the downstream pathway of Ginkgolide A in acute renal injury, and Ginkgolide A inhibited TWEAK/Fn14 pathway in cisplatin-induced renal injury model.

Chinese herbal injection for cardio-cerebrovascular disease: Overview and challenges

Cardio-cerebrovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and there is currently no optimal treatment plan. Chinese herbal medicine injection (CHI) is obtained by combining traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory and modern production technology. It retains some characteristics of TCM while adding injection characteristics. CHI has played an important role in the treatment of critical diseases, especially cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, and has shown unique therapeutic advantages. TCMs that promote blood circulation and remove blood stasis, such as Salvia miltiorrhiza, Carthami flos, Panax notoginseng, and Chuanxiong rhizoma, account for a large proportion of CHIs of cardio-cerebrovascular disease. CHI is used to treat cardio-cerebrovascular diseases and has potential pharmacological activities such as anti-platelet aggregation, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrosis, and anti-apoptosis. However, CHIs have changed the traditional method of administering TCMs, and the drugs directly enter the bloodstream, which may produce new pharmacological effects or adverse reactions. This article summarizes the clinical application, pharmacological effects, and mechanism of action of different varieties of CHIs commonly used in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, analyzes the causes of adverse reactions, and proposes suggestions for rational drug use and pharmaceutical care methods to provide a reference for the rational application of CHIs for cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.

Comparison analysis of metabolite profiling in seeds and bark of Ulmus parvifolia, a Chinese medicine species

Ulmus parvifolia (U. parvifolia) is a Chinese medicine plant whose bark and leaves are used in the treatment of some diseases such as inflammation, diarrhea and fever. However, metabolic signatures of seeds have not been studied. The seeds and bark of U. parvifolia collected at the seed ripening stage were used for metabolite profiling analysis through the untargeted metabolomics approach. A total of 2,578 and 2,207 metabolites, while 503 and 132 unique metabolites were identified in seeds and bark, respectively. Additionally, 574 differential metabolites (DEMs) were detected in the two different organs of U. parvifolia, which were grouped into 52 classes. Most kinds of metabolites classed into prenol lipids class. The relative content of flavonoids class was the highest. DEMs contained some bioactive compounds (e.g., flavonoids, terpene glycosides, triterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids) with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Most kinds of flavonoids and sesquiterpenes were up-regulated in seeds. There were more varieties of terpene glycosides and triterpenoids showing up-regulated in bark. The pathway enrichment was performed, while flavonoid biosynthesis, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis were worthy of attention. This study identified DEMs with pharmaceutical value between seeds and bark during seed maturation and offered a molecular basis for alternative or complementary use of seeds and bark of U. parvifolia as a Chinese medicinal material.

Terpenoids: Natural Compounds for Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Therapy

Natural products have been the most productive source for the development of drugs. Terpenoids are a class of natural active products with a wide range of pharmacological activities and therapeutic effects, which can be used to treat a variety of diseases. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a common metabolic disorder worldwide, results in a health burden and economic problems. A literature search was conducted to obtain information relevant to the treatment of NAFLD with terpenoids using electronic databases, namely PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Springer, for the period 2011-2021. In total, we found 43 terpenoids used in the treatment of NAFLD. Over a dozen terpenoid compounds of natural origin were classified into five categories according to their structure: monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, and tetraterpenoids. We found that terpenoids play a therapeutic role in NAFLD, mainly by regulating lipid metabolism disorder, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The AMPK, PPARs, Nrf-2, and SIRT 1 pathways are the main targets for terpenoid treatment. Terpenoids are promising drugs and will potentially create more opportunities for the treatment of NAFLD. However, current studies are restricted to animal and cell experiments, with a lack of clinical research and systematic structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies. In the future, we should further enrich the research on the mechanism of terpenoids, and carry out SAR studies and clinical research, which will increase the likelihood of breakthrough insights in the field.

Cardiovascular Activity of Ginkgo biloba-An Insight from Healthy Subjects

Ginkgo biloba is the oldest living tree species in the world. Despite less than encouraging clinical results, extracts from its leaves are among the most used herbal preparations in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Most data on the efficacy of Ginkgo biloba on cardiovascular disease is from clinical studies, with few results from healthy subjects. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the mechanisms underlying the known beneficial cardiovascular activities of Ginkgo biloba. It displays myocardial suppressant and vasorelaxant activities ex vivo, potentiating endothelial-dependent and -independent pathways. It improves perfusion in different vascular beds, namely ocular, cochlear, cutaneous, cerebral, and coronary. Although scarce, evidence suggests that Ginkgo biloba displays a heterogeneous effect on tissue perfusion which is dependent on the individual elimination pathways. It displays an acceptable safety profile, with most reported adverse reactions constituting rare occurrences. Collectively, Ginkgo biloba positively impacts cardiovascular physiology, improving hemodynamics and organ perfusion. In the future, better controlled clinical studies should be performed in order to identify the target populations who may benefit the most from pharmacotherapeutic interventions involving Ginkgo biloba.

Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Therapeutic Potentials of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson: A Literature-Based Review

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson, belonging to the family Lauraceae, is a multipurpose and fast-growing evergreen or deciduous tree that has been traditionally used for numerous purposes such as treatment for diarrhea, dysentery, abdominal pain, indigestion, gastroenteritis, edema, traumatic injuries, colds, arthritis, asthma, diabetes, pain relief, and poignant sexual power. This study aimed to summarize the chemical reports, folk values, and phytopharmacological activities of L. glutinosa, based on available information screened from diverse databases. An up-to-date electronic-based search was accomplished to obtain detailed information, with the help of several databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, SpringerLink, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, PubMed, ChemSpider, Elsevier, BioMed Central, and the USPTO, CIPO, INPI, Google Patents, and Espacenet, using relevant keywords. Outcomes advocate that, up to the present time, alkaloids, glycosides, and terpenoids are abundant in, and the most bioactive constituents of, this natural plant. Results demonstrated that L. glutinosa has various remarkable biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anticancer, antipyretic, anti-diabetic, analgesic, hepatoprotective, and wound-healing activity. One study revealed that L. glutinosa exhibited significant aphrodisiac and anti-infertility activity. Nevertheless, no clinical studies have been cited. Taken together, L. glutinosa may be one of the significant sources of bioactive constituents that could potentially lead to different effective pharmacological activities. On the other hand, future research should focus on clinical studies and several toxicity evaluations, such as sub-chronic toxicity, teratogenicity, and genotoxicity.

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract EGb 761® as a paragon of the product by process concept

It is an often-neglected fact that extracts derived from the very same plant can differ significantly in their phytochemical composition, and thus also in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties which are the basis for their clinical efficacy and safety. The Ginkgo biloba L. [Ginkgoaceae] special extract EGb 761^® is one of the best-studied plant extracts in the world. In the present review, using that extract as a paradigm, we describe insights how climate, the harvest region, processing of the plant material, the drying process, the extraction solvents, and the details of the subsequent process steps substantially impact the quality and uniformity of the final extract. We highlight the importance of regulating active constituent levels and consistent reduction of undesired substances in herbal extracts. This is accomplished by a controlled production process and corresponding analytical specifications. In conclusion, since extracts derived from the same plant can have very different phytochemical compositions, results from pharmacological, toxicological and clinical studies gained with one specific extract cannot be extrapolated to other extracts that were generated using different production processes. We propose that the heterogenous nature of extracts should be meticulously considered when evaluating the efficacy and safety of plant-derived remedies.

Ginkgolide A Participates in LPS-Induced PMVEC Injury by Regulating miR-224 and Inhibiting p21 in a Targeted Manner

Most studies have focused on the protective effects of ginkgolide A against ischemia/reperfusion-induced cardiomyopathy and injury of the brain, liver, and other organs, but there are few reports about the protection of lung tissues. This study was designed to clarify the protection of ginkgolide A against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell (PMVEC) injury. PMVECs were extracted and fell into control, LPS, and ginkgolide A groups. Next, we delved into the growth activity and apoptosis rate of cells via the CCK-8 assay and Hoechst staining, independently. Beyond that, western blotting (WB) was implemented for measurement of the expressions of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and CDK inhibitor (p21) that pertained to the cell cycle. The target sites of ginkgolide A were confirmed by miRNA array and real-time quantitative PCR. The relationship between miR-224 and p21 was analyzed using dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. Compared with the control group, the LPS group and ginkgolide A group had significantly decreased cell growth activity and relative expressions of cyclin D1 and CDK4 and elevated apoptosis rate and p21 expression. Pronounced elevations were observable in the cell growth activity and expressions of cyclin D1, CDK4, and p21, while the ginkgolide A group presented with a reduced apoptosis rate in comparison with the LPS group (P < 0.05). MiR-224 was the target of ginkgolide A, which had targeted regulatory effects on p21. Ginkgolide A can modulate miR-224 expression and regulate p21 expression in a targeted manner to enhance the resistance of PMVECs to LPS-induced cell apoptosis.

Identification of hepatoprotective traditional Chinese medicines based on the structure–activity relationship, molecular network, and machine learning techniques

The efforts focused on discovering potential hepatoprotective drugs are critical for relieving the burdens caused by liver diseases. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an important resource for discovering hepatoprotective agents. Currently, there are hundreds of hepatoprotective products derived from TCM available in the literature, providing crucial clues to discover novel potential hepatoprotectants from TCMs based on predictive research. In the current study, a large-scale dataset focused on TCM-induced hepatoprotection was established, including 676 hepatoprotective ingredients and 205 hepatoprotective TCMs. Then, a comprehensive analysis based on the structure–activity relationship, molecular network, and machine learning techniques was performed at molecular and holistic TCM levels, respectively. As a result, we developed an in silico model for predicting the hepatoprotective activity of ingredients derived from TCMs, in which the accuracy exceeded 85%. In addition, we originally proposed a material basis and a drug property-based approach to identify potential hepatoprotective TCMs. Consequently, a total of 12 TCMs were predicted to hold potential hepatoprotective activity, nine of which have been proven to be beneficial to the liver in previous publications. The high rate of consistency between our predictive results and the literature reports demonstrated that our methods were technically sound and reliable. In summary, systematical predictive research focused on the hepatoprotection of TCM was conducted in this work, which would not only assist screening of potential hepatoprotectants from TCMs but also provide a novel research mode for discovering the potential activities of TCMs.

Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for Heterologous Carnosic Acid Production

Carnosic acid (CA), a phenolic tricyclic diterpene, has many biological effects, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiobesity, and antidiabetic activities. In this study, an efficient biosynthetic pathway was constructed to produce CA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. First, the CA precursor miltiradiene was synthesized, after which the CA production strain was constructed by integrating the genes encoding cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) and cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) SmCPR. The CA titer was further increased by the coexpression of CYP76AH1 and SmCPR ∼t28SpCytb5 fusion proteins and the overexpression of different catalases to detoxify the hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Finally, engineering of the endoplasmic reticulum and cofactor supply increased the CA titer to 24.65 mg/L in shake flasks and 75.18 mg/L in 5 L fed-batch fermentation. This study demonstrates that the ability of engineered yeast cells to synthesize CA can be improved through metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies, providing a theoretical basis for microbial synthesis of other diterpenoids.

Plasmalogenic Lipid Analogs as Platelet-Activating Factor Antagonists: A Potential Novel Class of Anti-inflammatory Compounds

Plasmalogens and Platelet-Activating Factor (PAF) are both bioactive ether phospholipids. Whereas plasmalogens are recognized for their important antioxidant function and modulatory role in cell membrane structure and dynamics, PAF is a potent pro-inflammatory lipid mediator known to have messenger functions in cell signaling and inflammatory response. The relationship between these two types of lipids has been rarely studied in terms of their metabolic interconversion and reciprocal modulation of the pro-inflammation/anti-inflammation balance. The vinyl-ether bonded plasmalogen lipid can be the lipid sources for the precursor of the biosynthesis of ether-bonded PAF. In this opinion paper, we suggest a potential role of plasmalogenic analogs of PAF as modulators and PAF antagonists (anti-PAF). We discuss that the metabolic interconversion of these two lipid kinds may be explored towards the development of efficient preventive and relief strategies against PAF-mediated pro-inflammation. We propose that plasmalogen analogs, acting as anti-PAF, may be considered as a new class of bioactive anti-inflammatory drugs. Despite of the scarcity of available experimental data, the competition between PAF and its natural plasmalogenic analogs for binding to the PAF receptor (PAF-R) can be proposed as a mechanistic model and potential therapeutic perspective against multiple inflammatory diseases (e.g., cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, cancers, and various manifestations in coronavirus infections such as COVID-19).

Ginkgo biloba in the Aging Process: A Narrative Review

Neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension, insulin resistance, cancer, and other degenerative processes commonly appear with aging. Ginkgo biloba (GB) is associated with several health benefits, including memory and cognitive improvement, in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and cancer. Its antiapoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory actions have effects on cognition and other conditions associated with aging-related processes, such as insulin resistance, hypertension, and cardiovascular conditions. The aim of this study was to perform a narrative review of the effects of GB in some age-related conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, CVD, and cancer. PubMed, Cochrane, and Embase databases were searched, and the PRISMA guidelines were applied. Fourteen clinical trials were selected; the studies showed that GB can improve memory, cognition, memory scores, psychopathology, and the quality of life of patients. Moreover, it can improve cerebral blood flow supply, executive function, attention/concentration, non-verbal memory, and mood, and decrease stress, fasting serum glucose, glycated hemoglobin, insulin levels, body mass index, waist circumference, biomarkers of oxidative stress, the stability and progression of atherosclerotic plaques, and inflammation. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the use of GB can provide benefits in the prevention and treatment of aging-related conditions.

Yi-Zhi-Fang-Dai Formula Exerts Neuroprotective Effects Against Pyroptosis and Blood-Brain Barrier-Glymphatic Dysfunctions to Prevent Amyloid-Beta Acute Accumulation After Cerebral Ischemia and Reperfusion in Rats

Background: The dysfunctional blood–brain barrier (BBB)–glymphatic system is responsible for triggering intracerebral amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) accumulation and acts as the key link between ischemic stroke and dementia dominated by Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recently, pyroptosis in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury is demonstrated as a considerable mechanism causing BBB–glymphatic dysfunctions and Aβ acute accumulation in the brain. Targeting glial pyroptosis to protect BBB–glymphatic functions after cerebral I/R could offer a new viewpoint to prevent Aβ accumulation and poststroke dementia. Yi-Zhi-Fang-Dai formula (YZFDF) is an herbal prescription used to cure dementia with multiple effects of regulating inflammatory responses and protecting the BBB against toxic Aβ-induced damage. Hence, YZFDF potentially possesses neuroprotective effects against cerebral I/R injury and the early pathology of poststroke dementia, which evokes our current study.

Objectives: The present study was designed to confirm the potential efficacy of YZFDF against cerebral I/R injury and explore the possible mechanism associated with alleviating Aβ acute accumulation.

Methods: The models of cerebral I/R injury in rats were built by the method of middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R). First, neurological function assessment and cerebral infarct measurement were used for confirming the efficacy of YZFDF on cerebral I/R injury, and the optimal dosage (YZFDF-H) was selected to conduct the experiments, which included Western blotting detections of pyroptosis, Aβ_1-42 oligomers, and NeuN, immunofluorescence observations of glial pyroptosis, aquaporin-4 (AQP-4), and Aβ locations, brain water content measurement, SMI 71 (a specific marker for BBB)/AQP-4 immunohistochemistry, and Nissl staining to further evaluate BBB–glymphatic functions and neuronal damage.

Results: YZFDF obviously alleviated neurological deficits and cerebral infarct after cerebral I/R in rats. Furthermore, YZFDF could inactivate pyroptosis signaling via inhibiting caspase-1/11 activation and gasdermin D cleavage, ameliorate glial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation, protect against BBB collapse and AQP-4 depolarization, prevent Aβ acute accumulation and Aβ_1-42 oligomers formation, and reduce neuronal damage and increase neurons survival after reperfusion.

Conclusion: Our study indicated that YZFDF could exert neuroprotective effects on cerebral I/R injury and prevent Aβ acute accumulation in the brain after cerebral I/R associated with inhibiting neuroinflammation-related pyroptosis and BBB–glymphatic dysfunctions.

Neuroregulatory role of ginkgolides

The application of ginkgolides as a herbal remedy reaches ancient China. Over time many studies confirmed the neuroprotective effect of standard Ginkgo biloba tree extract—the only available ginkgolide source. Ginkgolides present a wide variety of neuroregulatory properties, commonly used in the therapy process of common diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and many other CNS-related diseases and disorders. The neuroregulative properties of ginkgolides include the conditioning of neurotransmitters action, e.g., glutamate or dopamine. Besides, natural compounds induce the inhibition of platelet-activating factors (PAF). Furthermore, ginkgolides influence the inflammatory process. This review focuses on the role of ginkgolides as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators and overviews their impact on the organism at the molecular, cellular, and physiological levels. The clinical application of ginkgolides is discussed as well.

Functional metabolomics innovates therapeutic discovery of traditional Chinese medicine derived functional compounds

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) produce chemically diverse functional compounds that are importantly chemical resource for facilitating new drug discovery and development against a diversity of diseases. However, modern exploration of TCM derived functional compounds is significantly hindered by the inefficient elucidation of pharmacological functions over past decades, because conventional research methods are incapable of efficiently elucidating therapeutic potential of TCM conferred by multiple functional compounds. Functional metabolomics has the priority-capacity to characterize systems therapeutic actions of TCM by precisely capturing molecular interactions between disease response metabolite biomarkers (DRMB) and functional compounds (secondary metabolites), which underline pharmacological efficiency and associated therapeutic mechanisms. In this critical review, we innovatively summarize systems therapeutic feature of TCM derived functional compounds from a functional-metabolism perspective, then systems metabolic targets (SMT) identified by functional metabolomics method are strategically proposed to better understanding of therapeutic discovery of TCM derived functional compounds. In addition, we propose the perspective strategy as Spatial Temporal Operative Real Metabolomics (STORM) to considerably improve analytical capacity of functional metabolomics method by selectively incorporating the cutting edge technologies of mass spectrometry imaging, isotope-metabolic fluxomics, synthetic and biosynthetic chemistry, which could considerably enhance the precision and resolution of elucidating pharmacological efficiency and associated therapeutic mechanisms of TCM derived functional compounds. Collectively, such critical review is expected to provide novel perspective-strategy that could significantly improve modern exploration and exploitation of TCM derived functional compounds that further promote new drug discovery and development against the complex diseases.