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Klepacz-Smolka A, Shah MR, Jiang Y, Zhong Y, Chen P, Pietrzyk D, Szelag R, Ledakowicz S, Daroch M. Microalgae are not an umbrella solution for power industry waste abatement but could play a role in their valorization. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2023:1-29. [PMID: 38105487 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2023.2284644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Microalgae have long been regarded as a promising solution for biological carbon abatement from the power industry, offering renewable biomass without competing for land or water resources used for food crops. In this study, we extensively examined the application of photosynthetic microorganisms for closing carbon, nitrogen, and micronutrient loops in the power industry. Subsequently, we explored the bottom-up integration of algal biorefineries into power industry waste streams for increased economic benefits and reduced environmental impacts. Analysis of the available data indicated that microalgae integration with the power industry is primarily performed using flue-gas-assisted cultivation. This approach allows for carbon sequestration typically below one gram per liter per day, too low to significantly impact carbon abatement at achievable scales of microalgae cultivation. Alternative approaches are also being explored. For example, soluble bicarbonate platforms allow for higher biomass productivity and temporary carbon storage. Meanwhile, the use of ashes and waste heat and thermophilic strains can result in lower cultivation costs and better control of cultivation conditions. These approaches offer further incremental improvement to microalgae-based carbon abatement systems in the power industry but are unlikely to be an umbrella solution for carbon reduction. Consequently, in the near term, microalgae-based carbon valorization systems are likely to be limited to niche applications involving the synthesis of high-value products. For microalgae to truly transform carbon abatement processes radical improvements in both biology and engineering approaches are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Klepacz-Smolka
- Faculty of Process Engineering and Environmental Protection, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Mahfuzur R Shah
- School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ying Jiang
- School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuqing Zhong
- School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Pengyu Chen
- School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Damian Pietrzyk
- Faculty of Process Engineering and Environmental Protection, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Rafal Szelag
- Faculty of Process Engineering and Environmental Protection, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Stanislaw Ledakowicz
- Faculty of Process Engineering and Environmental Protection, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Maurycy Daroch
- School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
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2
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Mondal B, Jana AK. Optimal reflux splitting reactive distillation for algal biodiesel Production: Waste heat recovery through vapor recompression and organic Rankine cycle. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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3
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Pasha MK, Dai L, Liu D, Guo M, Du W. An overview to process design, simulation and sustainability evaluation of biodiesel production. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:129. [PMID: 34074344 PMCID: PMC8170977 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-01977-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The overwhelming concerns due to over exploitation of fossil resources necessitate the utilization of alternative energy resources. Biodiesel has been considered as one of the most adaptable alternative to fossil-derived diesel with similar properties and numerous environmental benefits. Although there are various approaches for biodiesel production, development of cost-effective and robust catalyst with efficient production methods and utilization of a variety of feedstock could be the optimum solution to bring down the production cost. Considering the complexity of biodiesel production processes, process design, quantitative evaluation and optimization of the biodiesel from whole systems perspectives is essential for unlocking the complexity and enhancing the system performances. Process systems engineering offers an efficient approach to design and optimize biodiesel manufacturing systems by using a variety of tools. This review reflects state-of-the-art biodiesel research in the field of process systems engineering with a particular focus on biodiesel production including process design and simulation, sustainability evaluation, optimization and supply chain management. This review also highlights the challenges and opportunities for the development of potentially sustainable and eco-friendly enzymatic biodiesel technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Kamal Pasha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory for Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Lingmei Dai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory for Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Dehua Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory for Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Tsinghua Innovation Center in Dongguan, Guangdong, 523808, China
| | - Miao Guo
- Department of Engineering, Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Wei Du
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory for Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Tsinghua Innovation Center in Dongguan, Guangdong, 523808, China.
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4
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A conceptual review on microalgae biorefinery through thermochemical and biological pathways: Bio-circular approach on carbon capture and wastewater treatment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biteb.2020.100477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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5
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Ren L, Sun X, Zhang L, Huang H, Zhao Q. Exergy analysis for docosahexaenoic acid production by fermentation and strain improvement by adaptive laboratory evolution for Schizochytrium sp. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 298:122562. [PMID: 31838241 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Exergy analysis is powerful tool for process optimization and mechanism analysis. In this study, exergy analysis was performed for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) fermentation process. More than 86% of input exergy was contributed by glucose. The exergy of biomass was about 64.66% of the total output exergy when the phosphate concentration was 4 g L-1. The exergy efficiencies of DHA (ηDHA) for the starting strains and the evolved strains under high oxygen concentration, low temperature, and two-factor conditions were also investigated. The ηDHA in the collected experimental data was not more than 20.9%. It was proved that there was a positive correlation between ηDHA and the biomass yield. It was indicated that adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) improved biomass yield which had the most important effect on enhancing ηDHA and DHA yield (or DHA productivity). It is necessary to improve ηDHA through process optimization and ALE in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lujing Ren
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials (SICAM), People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoman Sun
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, 2 Xuelin Road, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Lihui Zhang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, 2 Xuelin Road, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - He Huang
- Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials (SICAM), People's Republic of China; School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, 2 Xuelin Road, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China; School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu South Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China; State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 5 Xinmofan Road, Nanjing 210009, People's Republic of China
| | - Quanyu Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu South Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China.
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6
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Lee JC, Lee B, Heo J, Kim HW, Lim H. Techno-economic assessment of conventional and direct-transesterification processes for microalgal biomass to biodiesel conversion. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 294:122173. [PMID: 31586730 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The simplified direct-transesterification (DT) process was compared to the conventional biodiesel production process based on a reported previous experimental work with economic standpoint. Based on the process flow diagram, capital and operating costs were itemized properly and then unit biodiesel production cost was calculated. The results show the biodiesel production costs were 18.2 $ kg-1 (conventional process) and 12.5 $ kg-1 (DT process), respectively. Sensitivity analysis shows the source of biomass and chemical consumption are the major factors to determine total biodiesel production cost. The affecting factors were a solvent recycling, yield of biodiesel, and plant capacity and these values were varied to evaluate the variation of unit biodiesel production cost. As a result, the maximized biodiesel production cost went down to 3.5 $ kg-1, which is cost-competitive with other reported values of production cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Cheol Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Boreum Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Juheon Heo
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Kim
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chonbuk National University, 567, Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Hankwon Lim
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea.
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7
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Food processing wastewater purification by microalgae cultivation associated with high value-added compounds production — A review. Chin J Chem Eng 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cjche.2019.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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8
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Choi YK, Jang HM, Kan E. Microalgal Biomass and Lipid Production on Dairy Effluent Using a Novel Microalga, Chlorella sp. Isolated from Dairy Wastewater. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-018-0094-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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9
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Toxigenic effects of two benthic diatoms upon grazing activity of the sea urchin: morphological, metabolomic and de novo transcriptomic analysis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5622. [PMID: 29618786 PMCID: PMC5884808 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Diatoms are unicellular algae playing a key role as photosynthetic organisms in the world's ocean food webs. The chemical ecology of planktonic diatoms is well documented, but few studies have reported on the effects of benthic diatoms on their consumers, also due to difficulties in the collection, quantification and massive culturing of benthic species. Here for the first time we investigate the effects of feeding on two abundantly occurring benthic diatoms, Nanofrustulum shiloi and Cylindrotheca closterium, isolated from the leaves of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica, on the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Adult P. lividus were fed for one month on diets of either one of the two diatoms and on the green alga Ulva rigida, used as a feeding control. By combining morphological, metabolomic and de novo transcriptomic approaches, we demonstrate toxigenic effect on embryos generated by females fed with these benthic diatoms. Furthermore, chemical analysis reveal the presence of polyunsaturated aldehydes only for N. shiloi, and a high production of other oxylipins (cytotoxic compounds on their grazers and on cancer cell lines) for both diatoms, including some additional peaks not correlated to the canonic oxylipins commonly observed in planktonic diatoms. These findings open new perspectives in the study of diatom secondary metabolites influencing their grazers.
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11
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Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using Waste Eggshell as a Base Catalyst under a Microwave Heating System. Catalysts 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/catal8020081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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12
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Song C, Liu Q, Ji N, Deng S, Zhao J, Li S, Kitamura Y. Evaluation of hydrolysis-esterification biodiesel production from wet microalgae. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 214:747-754. [PMID: 27209457 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 05/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Wet microalgae hydrolysis-esterification route has the advantage to avoid the energy-intensive units (e.g. drying and lipid extraction) in the biodiesel production process. In this study, techno-economic evaluation of hydrolysis-esterification biodiesel production process was carried out and compared with conventional (usually including drying, lipid extraction, esterification and transesterification) biodiesel production process. Energy and material balance of the conventional and hydrolysis-esterification processes was evaluated by Aspen Plus. The simulation results indicated that drying (2.36MJ/L biodiesel) and triolein transesterification (1.89MJ/L biodiesel) are the dominant energy-intensive stages in the conventional route (5.42MJ/L biodiesel). By contrast, the total energy consumption of hydrolysis-esterification route can be reduced to 1.81MJ/L biodiesel, and approximately 3.61MJ can be saved to produce per liter biodiesel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfeng Song
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, PR China; Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Qingling Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Na Ji
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Shuai Deng
- Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Shuhong Li
- Tianjin Food Safety & Low Carbon Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, College of Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China.
| | - Yutaka Kitamura
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
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13
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Shi W, Li H, Zhou R, Zhang H, Du Q. Biodiesel production from soybean oil by quaternized polysulfone alkali-catalyzed membrane. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 210:43-48. [PMID: 26783142 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.12.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A series of alkalized polysulfones (APSF) were synthesized by several chemical reactions (chloromethylation, quaternization and alkalization). Among these reactions, chloromethylation and quaternization are two key reactions and have been studied in detail regarding the optimization of both chloromethylation and quaternization. FTIR and (1)H NMR spectrum confirmed the successful preparation of chloromethylated polysulfone. The best IEC of APSF was obtained for 1.68meqg(-1) under reaction time of 10h and reaction temperature of 45°C. The APSF membrane as a heterogeneous catalyst for the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol was prepared through the method of solvent evaporation phase inversion. The effects of co-solvent types, mass ratios of soybean oil/co-solvent, water content and free fatty acids (FFAs) content in soybean oil on the conversions using the APSF membrane during transesterification were studied. The reusability of the APSF membrane and the kinetics of the reaction catalyzed by the APSF membrane were also investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenying Shi
- School of Textiles Engineering, Henan Institute of Engineering, Zhengzhou 450007, PR China.
| | - Hongbin Li
- School of Textiles Engineering, Henan Institute of Engineering, Zhengzhou 450007, PR China
| | - Rong Zhou
- School of Textiles Engineering, Henan Institute of Engineering, Zhengzhou 450007, PR China
| | - Haixia Zhang
- School of Textiles Engineering, Henan Institute of Engineering, Zhengzhou 450007, PR China
| | - Qiyun Du
- State Key Laboratory of Hollow Fiber Membrane Materials and Processes, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, PR China
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14
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Song C, Liu Q, Ji N, Deng S, Zhao J, Kitamura Y. Intensification of microalgae drying and oil extraction process by vapor recompression and heat integration. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 207:67-75. [PMID: 26871956 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.01.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Reducing energy penalty caused by drying and oil extraction is the most critical challenge in microalgae biodiesel production. In this study, vapor recompression and heat integration are utilized to optimize the performance of wet microalgae drying and oil extraction. In the microalgae drying stage, the hot exhaust stream is recompressed and coupled with wet microalgae to recover the condensate heat. In the oil extraction stage, the exergy rate of recovered solvent is also elevated by compressor and then exchanged heat with feed and bottom stream in the distillation column. Energy and mass balance of the intensified process is investigated and compared with the conventional microalgae drying-extraction process. The simulation results indicated that the total energy consumption of the intensified process can be saved by 52.4% of the conventional route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfeng Song
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, China; Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Qingling Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, China; Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Na Ji
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, China; Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Shuai Deng
- Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy (Tianjin University), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yutaka Kitamura
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
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15
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Huang R, Cheng J, Qiu Y, Li T, Zhou J, Cen K. Effects of cytoplasm and reactant polarities on acid-catalyzed lipid transesterification in wet microalgal cells subjected to microwave irradiation. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 200:738-743. [PMID: 26562690 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The polarities of the cytoplasm and reactants were measured through dielectric spectroscopy, contact angle test, NMR, and FTIR to investigate the mechanisms underlying acid-catalyzed lipid transesterification in wet microalgal cells subjected to microwave irradiation. Organics with apolar functional groups in the cytoplasm decreased the contact angle of methanol against triglyceride by 13.92°, which subsequently increased transesterification efficiency by 2.4 times. The microalgal biomass, given its higher hydrophilicity index of 1.96 than lipids, was more accessible to hydrophilic alcohols, which subsequently promoted transesterification. Water in the cytoplasm promoted the dielectric constant of methanol and increased the contact angle of methanol against triglyceride by 20.51°, which subsequently decreased transesterification efficiency by 72.6%. The inhibitory effect of water on transesterification weakened with the prolonged carbon lengths of the alcohols because of decreased polarity. Microwave decreased the electric constants of alcohols and reduced the polarity difference between alcohols and lipids, thereby improving transesterification efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jun Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
| | - Yi Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Tao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Junhu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Kefa Cen
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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