Effective feather degradation and keratinase production by Bacillus pumilus GRK for its application as bio-detergent additive

Keratinase and its diverse applications

Keratinase is a proteolytic enzyme specialized in the degradation of keratin-rich materials and has garnered significant attention for its potential in various biotechnological applications. This review provides an overview of keratinase, focusing on its structure, classification, function, biochemical properties, mechanisms of action and diverse applications. Keratinase plays an important role in bioremediation and stands out prominently, as it facilitates the eco-friendly degradation of keratinaceous waste materials addressing environmental concerns by reducing pollution and waste accumulation. Moreover, in the textile industry, keratinase plays a pivotal role in bio-pretreatment processes, enhancing the dyeing and finishing properties of animal fibers such as wool and silk. Beyond textiles, this enzyme contributes significantly to animal feed production by hydrolyzing keratin-rich byproducts into digestible components, thereby fostering the creation of high-protein feeds. Its impact extends to the cosmetic and pharmaceutical realms, where keratinase finds use in skincare formulations and in treating certain dermatological conditions owing to its ability to modify and break down keratin structures. By assisting in the removal of dead tissue, it demonstrates potential in biological applications for wound healing. Additionally, the challenges and future perspectives on the commercial scalability of keratinase production and its integration into various sectors are discussed.

Production optimization of a thermostable alkaline and detergent biocompatible protease by Bacillus paramycoides WSA for the green detergent industry

Industrial applications are evolving to replace chemical catalysts with eco-friendly solutions. This work enhances extracellular protease production from a newly isolated proteolytic Bacillus paramycoides WSA using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The used quadratic model demonstrated a good fit with R2 = 80.59%, R2Adj = 57.94%, a high degree of significance (p = 0.017 < 0.05), and a low RMSE = 0.030 U/mL. Maximum protease activity of 1.346 ± 0.060 U/mL was obtained after 8 h-cultivation at 45 °C and pH 7. The protease activity is maximal at 45 °C and pH 10. It maintains 75% of its activity after 10 min of incubation at 80 °C. Furthermore, the enzyme was found to be stable in an alkaline environment, retaining 89% of its activity after 1 h incubation at pH 12. Several metal ions, surfactants, and inhibitors increased protease performance. Indeed, 110% and 140% protease activity was measured in the presence of 5 mM CoCl2 and CaCl2, respectively. Similarly, 105%, 128%, 135%, 144%, and 160% protease activity were measured in the presence of 0.5% of Tween 20, EDTA, Sodium azide, uric acid, and SDS, respectively. Interestingly, the enzyme activity was enhanced (138%) after 1 h of incubation with 1% Reem detergent. Furthermore, this protease (10 U/mL), in combination with 0.7% detergent, could clean bloodstained fabric after 10 min incubation at 45 °C. Our results suggest that this thermostable, alkaline, and detergent-biocompatible protease could be a promising additive for eco-friendly use in detergent industries.

Redox and solvent-stable alkaline serine protease from Bacillus patagoniensis DB-5: heterologous expression, properties, and biotechnological applications

The aprBP gene from Bacillus patagoniensis DB-5, encoding a 378-amino-acid alkaline protease, was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The amino acid sequence of APrBP showed 62.8-84.4% identity with the S8 peptidase subtilisin family alkaline proteases reported in the literature. Recombinant APrBP was purified using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography with 45.61% recovery and a homogeneous band was detected at approximately 38 kDa on the SDS-PAGE gel. The optimum temperature of APrBP was 60°C. The presence of 2 mM Ca2+ significantly enhanced the optimal temperature and thermostability. The enzyme demonstrated optimum activity at pH 12 and maintained high stability at pH 8.0-11.0. Protease activity was stimulated by Mn2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Ni2+, TritonX-100, Tween-20 and Tween-80, while completely inactivated by PMSF, EDTA and Cu2+. The APrBP exhibited good tolerance to oxidizing and reducing agents. Notably, the protease exhibited remarkable stability in 50% (v/v) concentrations of several organic solvents, such as methanol, acetone, glycerol, dimethyl sulfoxide, n-hexane, and ethyl acetate. The APrBP efficiently hydrolyzed natural proteins, demonstrating the highest catalytic efficiency for casein, excellent hydrolysis activity for bovine serum albumin, hemoglobin, and keratin, and favorable hydrolysis ability for whey proteins. Moreover, molecular docking results revealed stable interactions between APrBP and casein, hemoglobin, whey proteins and keratin. This study indicated that APrBP has some useful properties and explored its potential as a bio-additive detergent as well as in utilizing feather waste and whey protein.

Proteases and keratinases from Bacillus zhangzhouensis MH1: Practical use in detergent, leather, and waste management processes

Microbial proteases and keratinases find extensive application in both the detergent and leather industries, as well as in poultry waste management. In this study, a multifunctional strain MH1 exhibiting proteolytic and keratinolytic activities was newly isolated and identified as Bacillus zhangzhouensis. To improve its stability, the proteolytic extract was spray-dried and the stability was assessed during two years of storage. The enzyme preparation was fully stable up to 20 months of conservation at 4 °C even in the absence of any protective agent, while the enzymatic half-life at room temperature was twenty months using maltodextrin as a protector additive. MH1 was a feather-decomposing strain producing keratinases (95 U/ml) on feather medium. Therefore, the study evaluated the use of these enzymes in the detergent, tannery, and feed processes. Results showed that the sprayed proteases showed high compatibility with commercial liquid and solid detergents and efficiently removed bloodstains at low wash temperatures. They also revealed significant dehairing activity of cow skin without surface damage. While keratinases effectively transformed chicken feathers into keratin hydrolysate with strong antioxidant activity. Therefore, these enzymes could be a green alternative to hazardous chemicals utilized for detergent, leather, and biodegradation of keratinous waste.

Biodegradation of different keratin waste by newly isolated thermophilic Brevibacillus gelatini LD5: Insights into the degradation mechanism based on genomic analysis and keratin structural changes

Keratin is an abundant environmental solid waste. This work isolated a thermophilic strain from a hot spring with efficient keratinolytic ability. The strain was identified and named as Brevibacillus gelatini LD5 based on whole-genome sequence analysis. The strain has genes related to keratin degradation, including disulfide reduction, keratin denaturation, protein proteolysis and metabolism of amino acids. The keratinases derived from this strain were the endo-acting M4, M16 and S8 proteases, exo-acting S9 protease and oligo-acting M3 and M32 peptidases via Conserved Unique Peptide Patterns (CUPP) prediction. The LD5 can degrade different keratin biomass, e.g. chicken feathers (CF), goose feathers (GF), pig hair (PH), cat hair (CH) and dog hair (DH). The degradation rate of CF was 62.45 % after 24-h fermentation. The hydrolysates from different keratin biomass have all shown keratinolytic activity, antioxidant and antiradical activities. The random structure of keratin was easier to be degraded by LD5 from Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis. The optimum temperature-pH conditions of the keratinases were 79.8 °C and pH 7.5, and thermal stability of the keratinases reached 71.5 min at 70 °C. These results demonstrated that B. gelatini LD5 has potential application in keratin wastes biodegradation and thermal stable keratinase production.

Harnessing the potential of microbial keratinases for bioconversion of keratin waste

The increasing global consumption of poultry meat has led to the generation of a vast quantity of feather keratin waste daily, posing significant environmental challenges due to improper disposal methods. A growing focus is on utilizing keratinous polymeric waste, amounting to millions of tons annually. Keratins are biochemically rigid, fibrous, recalcitrant, physiologically insoluble, and resistant to most common proteolytic enzymes. Microbial biodegradation of feather keratin provides a viable solution for augmenting feather waste's nutritional value while mitigating environmental contamination. This approach offers an alternative to traditional physical and chemical treatments. This review focuses on the recent findings and work trends in the field of keratin degradation by microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi) via keratinolytic and proteolytic enzymes, as well as the limitations and challenges encountered due to the low thermal stability of keratinase, and degradation in the complex environmental conditions. Therefore, recent biotechnological interventions such as designing novel keratinase with high keratinolytic activity, thermostability, and binding affinity have been elaborated here. Enhancing protein structural rigidity through critical engineering approaches, such as rational design, has shown promise in improving the thermal stability of proteins. Concurrently, metagenomic annotation offers insights into the genetic foundations of keratin breakdown, primarily predicting metabolic potential and identifying probable keratinases. This may extend the understanding of microbial keratinolytic mechanisms in a complex community, recognizing the significance of synergistic interactions, which could be further utilized in optimizing industrial keratin degradation processes.

Alkaline keratinase from Bacillus sp. DRS4 efficiently biodegrades chicken feathers to synthesize improved keratin/bacterial nanocellulose-based bioplastics

Chicken feathers represent an abundant and sustainable resource that can be harnessed for multiple value-added products. Bioplastic reinforced with bacterial nanocellulose was synthesized using enzymatically digested chicken feathers. A highly efficient keratinolytic bacterium, identified as Bacillus sp. DRS4 through biochemical characterization and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, was isolated from deposit soils of Lake Chitu in Ethiopia. Bacillus sp. DRS4 was able to completely degrade chicken feathers within 48 h. Optimization of the physicochemical parameters increased the enzyme yield from Bacillus sp. DRS4 by 30%. The enzyme showed optimal keratinolytic activity at 37 °C and pH 11, hydrolyzing white chicken feathers in 72 h and providing hydrolysates with a total protein content of 251.145 mg/mL. Further, the mechanical and thermal properties of a bioplastic made from hydrolysates and reinforced with bacterial nanocellulose were assessed. The bioplastic exhibited a remarkable tensile strength of 5.769 MPa and reached a melting temperature of 127.5 °C, suggesting that bacterial nanocellulose acts as an effective stabilizer. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed additional peaks in BNC-reinforced plastic films, indicating a binding interaction that enhanced the bioplastic properties. Overall, Bacillus sp. DRS4 is a potential strain for alkaline keratinase production and a promising candidate for upgrading chicken feathers into high-value-added products.

A Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Unveils the Mechanisms of Response in Feather Degradation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gxun-7

Microbial degradation of feathers offers potential for bioremediation, yet the microbial response mechanisms warrant additional investigation. In prior work, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gxun-7, which demonstrated robust degradation of feathers at elevated concentrations, was isolated. However, the molecular mechanism of this degradation remains only partially understood. To investigate this, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to examine the genes that were expressed differentially in P. aeruginosa Gxun-7 when exposed to 25 g/L of feather substrate. The RNA-seq analysis identified 5571 differentially expressed genes; of these, 795 were upregulated and 603 were downregulated. Upregulated genes primarily participated in proteolysis, amino acid, and pyruvate metabolism. Genes encoding proteases, as well as those involved in sulfur metabolism, phenazine synthesis, and type VI secretion systems, were notably elevated, highlighting their crucial function in feather decomposition. Integration of Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) taxonomies, combined with a review of the literature, led us to propose that metabolic feather degradation involves environmental activation, reducing agent secretion, protease release, peptide/amino acid uptake, and metabolic processes. Sulfite has emerged as a critical activator of keratinase catalysis, while cysteine serves as a regulatory mediator. qRT-PCR assay results for 11 selected gene subset corroborated the RNA-seq findings. This study enhances our understanding of the transcriptomic responses of P. aeruginosa Gxun-7 to feather degradation and offers insights into potential degradation mechanisms, thereby aiding in the formulation of effective feather waste management strategies in poultry farming.

Rational engineering S1' substrate binding pocket to enhance substrate specificity and catalytic activity of thermal-stable keratinase for efficient keratin degradation

This study reports the rational engineering of the S1' substrate-binding pocket of a thermally-stable keratinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-3 (4-3Ker) to improve substrate specificity to typical keratinase (K/C > 0.5) and catalytic activity without compromising thermal stability for efficient keratin degradation. Of 10 chosen mutation hotspots in the S1' substrate-binding pocket, the top three mutations M128R, A138V, and V142I showing the best catalytic activity and substrate specificity were identified. Their double and triple combinatorial mutants synergistically overcame limitations of single mutants, fabricating an excellent M128R/A138V/V142I triple mutant which displayed a 1.21-fold increase in keratin catalytic activity, 1.10-fold enhancement in keratin/casein activity ratio, and a 3.13 °C increase in half-inactivation temperature compared to 4-3Ker. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed enhanced flexibility of critical amino acid residues at the substrate access tunnel, improved global protein rigidity, and heightened hydrophobicity within the active site likely underpinned the increased catalytic activity and substrate specificity. Additionally, the triple mutant improved the feather degradation rate by 32.86 % over the wild-type, far exceeding commercial keratinase in substrate specificity and thermal stability. This study exemplified engineering a typical keratinase with enhanced substrate specificity, catalytic activity, and thermal stability from thermally-stable 4-3Ker, providing a more robust tool for feather degradation.

A scientific version of understanding "Why did the chickens cross the road"? - A guided journey through Bacillus spp. towards sustainable agriculture, circular economy and biofortification

The world, a famished planet with an overgrowing population, requires enormous food crops. This scenario compelled the farmers to use a high quantity of synthetic fertilizers for high food crop productivity. However, prolonged usage of chemical fertilizers results in severe adverse effects on soil and water quality. On the other hand, the growing population significantly consumes large quantities of poultry meats. Eventually, this produces a mammoth amount of poultry waste, chicken feathers. Owing to the protein value of the chicken feathers, these wastes are converted into protein hydrolysate and further extend their application as biostimulants for sustained agriculture. The protein profile of chicken feather protein hydrolysate (CFPH) produced through Bacillus spp. was the maximum compared to physical and chemical protein extraction methods. Several studies proved that the application of CFPH and active Bacillus spp. culture to soil and plants results in enhanced plant growth, phytochemical constituents, crop yield, soil nutrients, fertility, microbiome and resistance against diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. Overall, "CFPH - Jack of all trades" and "Bacillus spp. - an active camouflage to the surroundings where they applied showed profound and significant benefits to the plant growth under the most adverse conditions. In addition, Bacillus spp. coheres the biofortification process in plants through the breakdown of metals into metal ions that eventually increase the nutrient value of the food crops. However, detailed information on them is missing. This can be overcome by further real-world studies on rhizoengineering through a multi-omics approach and their interaction with plants. This review has explored the best possible and efficient strategy for managing chicken feather wastes into protein-rich CFPH through Bacillus spp. bioconversion and utilizing the CFPH and Bacillus spp. as biostimulants, biofertilizers, biopesticides and biofortificants. This paper is an excellent report on organic waste management, circular economy and sustainable agriculture research frontier.

Structural and enzymatic characterization of a novel metallo-serine keratinase KerJY-23

KerJY-23 was a novel keratinase from feather-degrading Ectobacillus sp. JY-23, but its enzymatic characterization and structure are still unclear. In this study, the KerJY-23 was obtained by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3), and enzymatic properties indicated that KerJY-23 was optimal at 60 °C and pH 9.0 and could be promoted by divalent metal ions or reducing agents. Furthermore, KerJY-23 had a broad substrate specificity towards casein, soluble keratin, and expanded feather powder, but its in vitro degradation against chicken feathers required an additional reducing agent. Homology modeling indicated that KerJY-23 contained a highly conserved zinc-binding HELTH motif and a His-Asp-Ser catalytic triad that belonged to the typical characteristics of M4-family metallo-keratinase and serine-keratinase, respectively. Molecular docking revealed that KerJY-23 achieved a reinforced binding on feather keratin via abundant hydrogen bonding interactions. This work not only deepened understanding of the novel and interesting metallo-serine keratinase KerJY-23, but also provided a theoretical basis for realizing the efficient use of waste feather keratin.

Prediction and validation of enzymatic degradation of aflatoxin M1: Genomics and proteomics analysis of Bacillus pumilus E-1-1-1 enzymes

Aflatoxins are a class of highly toxic mycotoxins. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1, having comparable toxicity, which is more commonly found in milk. In this study, the whole genome sequencing of Bacillus pumilus E-1-1-1 isolated from feces of 38 kinds of animals, having aflatoxin M1 degradation ability was conducted. Bacterial genome sequencing indicated that a total of 3445 sequences were finally annotated on 23 different cluster of orthologous groups (COG) categories. Then, the potential AFM1 degradation proteins were verified by proteomics; the properties of these proteins were further explored, including protein molecular weight, hydrophobicity, secondary structure prediction, and three-dimensional structures. Bacterial genome sequencing combined with proteomics showed that eight genes were the most capable of degrading AFM1 including three catalases, one superoxide dismutase, and four peroxidases to clone. These eight genes with AFM1 degrading capacity were successfully expressed. These results indicated that AFM1 can be degraded by Bacillus pumilus E-1-1-1 protein and the most degrading proteins were oxidoreductases.

Comprehensive insights into the mechanism of keratin degradation and exploitation of keratinase to enhance the bioaccessibility of soybean protein

Keratin is a recalcitrant protein and can be decomposed in nature. However, the mechanism of keratin degradation is still not well understood. In this study, Bacillus sp. 8A6 can completely degrade the feather in 20 h, which is an efficient keratin degrader reported so far. Comprehensive transcriptome analysis continuously tracks the metabolism of Bacillus sp. 8A6 throughout its growth in feather medium. It reveals for the first time how the strain can acquire nutrients and energy in an oligotrophic feather medium for proliferation in the early stage. Then, the degradation of the outer lipid layer of feather can expose the internal keratin structure for disulfide bonds reduction by sulfite from the newly identified sulfite metabolic pathway, disulfide reductases and iron uptake. The resulting weakened keratin has been further proposedly de-assembled by the S9 protease and hydrolyzed by synergistic effects of the endo, exo and oligo-proteases from S1, S8, M3, M14, M20, M24, M42, M84 and T3 families. Finally, bioaccessible peptides and amino acids are generated and transported for strain growth. The keratinase has been applied for soybean hydrolysis, which generates 2234 peptides and 559.93 mg/L17 amino acids. Therefore, the keratinases, inducing from the poultry waste, have great potential to be further applied for producing bioaccessible peptides and amino acids for feed industry.

Biodegradation and valorization of feather waste using the keratinase-producing bacteria and their application in environmentally hazardous industrial processes

Poultry feathers are widely discarded as waste worldwide and are considered an environmental pollutant and a reservoir of pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, developing sustainable and environmentally friendly methods for managing feather waste is one of the important environmental protection requirements. In this study, we investigated a rapid and eco-friendly method for the degradation and valorization of feather waste using keratinase-producing Pseudomonas geniculata H10, and evaluated the applicability of keratinase in environmentally hazardous chemical processes. Strain H10 completely degraded chicken feathers within 48 h by producing keratinase using them as sources of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. The culture contained a total of 402.8 μM amino acids, including 8 essential amino acids, which was higher than the chemical treatment. Keratinase was a serine-type metalloprotease with optimal temperature and pH of 30 °C and 9, respectively, and showed relatively high stability at 10-40 °C and pH 3-10. Keratinase was also able to degrade various insoluble keratins such as duck feathers, wool, human hair, and nails. Furthermore, keratinase exhibited more efficient depilation and wool modification than chemical treatment, as well as novel functionalities such as nematicidal and exfoliating activities. This suggests that strain H10 is a promising candidate for the efficient degradation and valorization of feather waste, as well as the improvement of current industrial processes that use hazardous chemicals.

Characterization of alkaline metalloprotease isolated from halophilic bacterium Bacillus cereus and its applications in various industrial processes

Microbial proteases are one of the most demanding enzymes for various industries with diverse applications in food, pharmaceutics, and textile industries to name the few. An extracellular alkaline metalloprotease was produced and purified from moderate halophilic bacterial strain, Bacillus cereus TS2, with some unique characteristics required for various industrial applications. The protease was produced in basal medium supplemented with casein and was partially purified by ion exchange chromatography followed by ammonium sulphate precipitation. The alkaline metalloprotease has molecular weight of 35 kDa with specific activity of 535.4 µM/min/mg. It can work at wide range of pH from 3 to 12, while showing optimum activity at pH 10. Similarly, the alkaline metalloprotease is stable till the temperature of 80 °C and works at wide range of temperature from 20 to 90 °C with optimum activity at 60 °C. The turnover rate increases in the presence of NaCl and Co+2 with k cat/KM of 1.42 × 103 and 1.27 × 103 s-1.M-1 respectively, while without NaCl and Co+2 it has a value of 7.58× 102. The alkaline metalloprotease was relatively resistant to thermal and solvent mediated denaturation. Applications revealed that the metalloprotease was efficient to remove hair from goat skin, remove blood stains and degrade milk, thus can be a potential candidate for leather, detergent, and food industry.

Synthesis and characterization of keratinase laden green synthesized silver nanoparticles for valorization of feather keratin

This study focuses on the efficient and cost-effective synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant extracts, which have versatile and non-toxic applications. The research objectives include synthesizing AgNPs from readily available plant extracts, optimizing their production and multi scale characterization, along with exploring their use for enzyme immobilization and mitigation of poultry feather waste. Among the plant extracts tested, the flower extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (HF) showed the most potential for AgNP synthesis. The synthesis of HF-mediated AgNPs was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) for efficient and environment friendly production. Additionally, the keratinase enzyme obtained from Bacillus sp. NCIM 5802 was covalently linked to AgNPs, forming a keratinase nanocomplex (KNC) whose biochemical properties were evaluated. The KNC demonstrated optimal activity at pH 10.0 and 60 °C and it displayed remarkable stability in the presence of various inhibitors, metal ions, surfactants, and detergents. Spectroscopic techniques such as FTIR, UV-visible, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis were employed to investigate the formation of biogenic HF-AgNPs and KNC, confirming the presence of capping and stabilizing agents. The morphological characteristics of the synthesized AgNPs and KNC were determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and particle size analysis. The study highlighted the antimicrobial, dye scavenging, and antioxidant properties of biogenic AgNPs and KNC, demonstrating their potential for various applications. Overall, this research showcases the effectiveness of plant extract-driven green synthesis of AgNPs and the successful development of keratinase-laden nanocomplexes, opening possibilities for their use in immobilizing industrial and commercial enzymes.

Isolation of a novel feather-degrading Ectobacillus sp. JY-23 strain and characterization of a new keratinase in the M4 metalloprotease family

Microbial keratinases have prominent potential in biotransformation of recalcitrant keratin substrates to value-added products which has made keratinases a research focus in the past decades. In this study, an efficient feather-degrading bacterium was isolated and identified as a novel species in Ectobacillus genus and designated as Ectobacillus sp. JY-23. The degradation characteristics analysis revealed that Ectobacillus sp. JY-23 could utilize chicken feathers (0.4% w/v) as the sole nutrient source and degraded 92.95% of feathers in 72 h. A significant increase in sulfite and free sulfydryl group content detected in the feather hydrolysate (culture supernatant) indicated efficient reduction of disulfide bonds, which inferred that the degradation mechanism of isolated strain was a synergetic action of sulfitolysis and proteolysis. Moreover, abundant amino acids were also detected, among which proline and glycine were the predominant free amino acids. Then, the keratinase of Ectobacillus sp. JY-23 was mined and Y1_15990 was identified as the keratinase encoding gene of Ectobacillus sp. JY-23 and designated as kerJY-23. Escherichia coli strain overexpressing kerJY-23 degraded chicken feathers in 48 h. Finally, bioinformatics prediction of KerJY-23 demonstrated that it belonged to the M4 metalloprotease family, which was a third keratinase member in this family. KerJY-23 showed low sequence identity to the other two keratinase members, indicating the novelty of KerJY-23. Overall, this study presents a novel feather-degrading bacterium and a new keratinase in the M4 metalloprotease family with remarkable potential in feather keratin valorization.

Characterization of the Keratinolytic Activity of Three Streptomyces Strains and Impact of Their Co-Cultivation on This Activity

In this study, we describe the characterization of three efficient chicken feather-degrading Streptomyces bacteria isolated from honeybee samples and assess the impact of their co-cultivation on this activity and antistaphylococcal activity. Streptomyces griseoaurantiacus AD2 was the strain showing the highest keratinolytic activity (4000 U × mL^-1), followed by Streptomyces albidoflavus AN1 and Streptomyces drozdowiczii AD1, which both generated approximately 3000 U × mL^-1. Moreover, a consortium constituted of these three strains was able to use chicken feathers as its sole nutrient source and growth in such conditions led to a significant increase in antibiotic production. S. griseoaurantiacus AD2 was the only strain that exhibited weak antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. UPLC analyses revealed that a significant number of peaks detected in the extracts of co-cultures of the three strains were missing in the extracts of individual cultures. In addition, the production of specialized metabolites, such as undecylprodigiosin and manumycin A, was clearly enhanced in co-culture conditions, in agreement with the results of the antimicrobial bioassays against S. aureus. Our results revealed the benefits of co-cultivation of these bacterial species in terms of metabolic wealth and antibiotic production. Our work could thus contribute to the development of novel microbial-based strategies to valorize keratin waste.

A novel and green method for recycling of waste feather for down via flash explosion with supercritical carbon dioxide

Millions of tons of feather are produced worldwide each year and considered as a solid waste owing to technical or cost constraints to provide valuable functional characteristics. In this study, a novel and ecofriendly method to recycle waste feather and obtain a type of explosion down via flash explosion with a supercritical fluid of carbon dioxide (SCF-CO₂) was developed for the first time. The effects of flash explosion parameters on the structures and properties of feather were explored by orthogonal experiments. A mechanism involving two-step procedures for the developed SCF-CO₂ flash explosion is proposed. The obtained results indicate that reinforcements of flash explosion conditions, particularly the system pressure, were readily conducive to transfer the original feather to a soft down with an improved separation ratio, as well as easily weaken or break hydrogen and disulfide bonds associated in feather macromolecules. Moreover, efficient modifications of the physical characteristics, structures and surface morphologies of the waste feather were obtained by the SCF flash explosion to produce a uniform, slender and fibrous explosion down, as demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis. Further tests on the SCF explosion down treated at 70.0 °C at 15.0 MPa for 30.0 min and at 90.0 °C at 20.0 MPa for 20.0 min showed remarkable enhancements in warmth retention along with comparable thermal degradation nature, as well as enhanced softness, down-proof, and other service properties in comparison to the original feather. The SCF-CO₂ flash explosion is a promising approach with environment-friendly characteristics to obtain high efficiency and quality of the explosion down by recycling of waste feather.

Molecular design and experimental study of deep eutectic solvent extraction of keratin derived from feathers

Feather keratin has a complex structure, hard texture and must be treated to improve its bioavailability. In this paper, according to the designability of DES, some deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were prepared to degrade feathers and extract keratin. Calculations by quantum chemical methods showed that DESs were considered molecular scissors with the ability to break initial hydrogen bonds and form new bonds only when the Gibbs free energy change for the degradation process was ΔG < 0, i.e., hydrogen binding energy ΔE < -0.3038 kcal/mol. Then, the degradation mechanism was predicted to provide guidance for the molecular design of DES. Finally, experimental results showed that the same ratio of choline chloride-based DESs had higher catalytic performance, in which [ChCl][P][ZnCl₂] 1:5:2 was used with a high yield of keratin of 85.46 %. DES had a high catalytic performance after multiple recycling cycles and this method has no H₂S gas generation, which improves the atomic utilization.

Insights into the keratin efficient degradation mechanism mediated by Bacillus sp. CN2 based on integrating functional degradomics

BACKGROUND

Keratin, the main component of chicken feather, is the third most abundant material after cellulose and chitin. Keratin can be converted into high-value compounds and is considered a potential high-quality protein supplement; However, its recalcitrance makes its breakdown a challenge, and the mechanisms of action of keratinolytic proteases-mediated keratinous substrates degradation are not yet fully elucidated. Bacillus sp. CN2, having many protease-coding genes, is a dominant species in keratin-rich materials environments. To explore the degradation patterns of feather keratin, in this study, we investigated the characteristics of feather degradation by strain CN2 based on the functional-degradomics technology.

RESULTS

Bacillus sp. CN2 showed strong feather keratin degradation activities, which could degrade native feathers efficiently resulting in 86.70% weight loss in 24 h, along with the production of 195.05 ± 6.65 U/mL keratinases at 48 h, and the release of 0.40 mg/mL soluble proteins at 60 h. The extracellular protease consortium had wide substrate specificity and exhibited excellent biodegradability toward soluble and insoluble proteins. Importantly, analysis of the extracellular proteome revealed the presence of a highly-efficient keratin degradation system. Firstly, T3 γ-glutamyltransferase provides a reductive force to break the dense disulfide bond structure of keratin. Then S8B serine endopeptidases first hydrolyze keratin to expose more cleavage sites. Finally, keratin is degraded into small peptides under the synergistic action of proteases such as M4, S8C, and S8A. Consistent with this, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and amino acid analysis showed that the feather keratin hydrolysate contained a large number of soluble peptides and essential amino acids.

CONCLUSIONS

The specific expression of γ-glutamyltransferase and co-secretion of endopeptidase and exopeptidase by the Bacillus sp. CN2 play an important role in feather keratin degradation. This insight increases our understanding of the keratinous substrate degradation and may inspire the design of the optimal enzyme cocktails for more efficient exploration of protein resources in industrial applications.

Characterization of Bacillus Strains from Natural Honeybee Products with High Keratinolytic Activity and Antimicrobial Potential

Two efficient feather-degrading bacteria were isolated from honeybee samples and identified as Bacillus sonorensis and Bacillus licheniformis based on 16S rRNA and genome sequencing. The strains were able to grow on chicken feathers as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources and degraded the feathers in a few days. The highest keratinase activity was detected by the B. licheniformis CG1 strain (3800 U × mL^-1), followed by B. sonorensis AB7 (1450 U × mL^-1). Keratinase from B. licheniformis CG1 was shown to be active across a wide range of pH, potentially making this strain advantageous for further industrial applications. All isolates displayed antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus luteus; however, only B. licheniformis CG1 was able to inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. In silico analysis using BAGEL and antiSMASH identified gene clusters associated with the synthesis of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS), polyketide synthases (PKSs) and/or ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) in most of the Bacillus isolates. B. licheniformis CG1, the only strain that inhibited the growth of the mycobacterial strain, contained sequences with 100% similarity to lichenysin (also present in the other isolates) and lichenicidin (only present in the CG1 strain). Both compounds have been described to display antimicrobial activity against distinct bacteria. In summary, in this work, we have isolated a strain (B. licheniformis CG1) with promising potential for use in different industrial applications, including animal nutrition, leather processing, detergent formulation and feather degradation.

Improving the catalytic activity of a detergent-compatible serine protease by rational design

Serine proteases are among the most important biological additives in various industries such as detergents, leather, animal feed and food. A serine protease gene, Fgapt4, from Fusarium graminearum 2697 was identified, cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris. The optimal pH and temperature of FgAPT4 were 8.5 and 40°C, respectively. The relative activity was >30% even at 10°C. It had a wide range of pH stability (4.0-12.0) and detergent compatibility. To improve the catalytic activity, a strategy combining molecular docking and evolutionary analysis was adopted. Twelve amino acid residue sites and three loops (A, B and C) were selected as potential hot spots that might play critical roles in the enzyme's functional properties. Twenty-eight mutants targeting changes in individual sites or loops were designed, and mutations with good performance were combined. The best mutant was FgAPT4-M3 (Q70N/D142S/A143S/loop C). The specific activity and catalytic efficiency of FgAPT4-M3 increased by 1.6 (1008.5 vs. 385.9 U/mg) and 2.2-fold (3565.1 vs. 1106.3/s/mM), respectively. Computational analyses showed that the greater flexibility of the substrate pocket may be responsible for the increased catalytic activity. In addition, its application in detergents indicated that FgAPT4-M3 has great potential in washing.

Production and characterization of novel thermo- and organic solvent-stable keratinase and aminopeptidase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-3 for effective poultry feather degradation

Feather biodegradation is an important premise for efficient resource development and utilization, in which keratinase plays an important role. However, there are few keratinases that combine the high activity, thermal stability, and organic solvent tolerance required for industrialization. This paper reported an efficient feather-degrading Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-3 isolated from slaughterhouses. After 48 h of fermentation by P. aeruginosa 4-3 in a feather medium at 40 °C, pH 8.0, keratinase was efficiently produced (295.28 ± 5.42 U/mL) with complete feather degradation (95.3 ± 1.5%). Moreover, the keratinase from P. aeruginosa 4-3 showed high optimal temperature (55 °C), good thermal stability, wide pH tolerance, and excellent organic solvent resistance. In addition, P. aeruginosa 4-3-derived aminopeptidases also exhibit excellent thermal stability and organic solvent tolerance. Encouragingly, the reaction of crude keratinase and aminopeptidase with feathers for 8 h resulted in a 78% degradation rate of feathers. These properties make P. aeruginosa 4-3 keratinase and aminopeptidase ideal proteases for potential applications in keratin degradation, as well as provide ideas for the synergistic degradation of keratin by multiple enzymes.

Efficient valorization of feather waste by Bacillus cereus IIPK35 for concomitant production of antioxidant keratin hydrolysate and milk-clotting metallo-serine keratinase

Keratinase production by Bacillus cereus IIPK35 was investigated under solid-state fermentation (SSF) and the maximum titer of 648.28 U/gds was revealed. Feather hydrolysates obtained from SSF exhibited paramount antioxidant properties in ABTS [2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid], FRAP [Ferric ion reducing antioxidant power], and DPPH [2,2,-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl] assay. The keratinase was purified up to homogeneity have a molecular weight of 42 kDa, and showed its stability between pH 6.5-10.0 and temperature 35-60 °C with optimum enzyme activity at pH 9.0 and 55 °C. The catalytic indices viz. Km of 9.8 mg/ml and Vmax of 307.7 μmol/min for keratin were determined. Besides keratin, the enzyme displayed broad and proteolytic activity towards other proteinaceous substrates such as casein, skim milk, gelatin, and bovine serum albumin. Pure keratinase activity was stimulated in presence of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions, while it was strongly inhibited by both iodoacetamide and EDTA, indicating it to be a metallo-serine protease in nature. Circular dichroism study endorses the structural stability of the secondary structure at the said range of pH and temperature. The IIPK35 keratinase is non-cytotoxic in nature, shows remarkable storage stability and is stable in presence of Tween 80, Triton X 100, and sodium sulfite. Furthermore, it showed excellent milk clotting potential (107.6 Soxhlet Unit), suggesting its usefulness as an alternative milk clotting agent in the dairy industry. This study unlocks a new gateway for keratinase investigation in SSF using chicken feathers as substrate and biochemical and biophysical characterization of keratinase for better understanding and implication in industrial applications.

Multifarious revolutionary aspects of microbial keratinases: an efficient green technology for future generation with prospective applications

Since the dawn of century, tons of keratin bio-waste is generated by the poultry industry annually, and they end up causing environmental havoc. Keratins are highly flexible fibrous proteins which exist in α- and β- forms and provide mechanical strength and stability to structural appendages. The finding of broad-spectrum protease, keratinase, from thermophilic bacteria and fungi, has provided an eco-friendly solution to hydrolyze the peptide bonds in highly recalcitrant keratinous substances such as nails, feathers, claws, and horns into valuable amino acids. Microorganisms produce these proteolytic enzymes by techniques of solid-state and submerged fermentation. However, solid-state fermentation is considered as a yielding approach for the production of thermostable keratinases. This review prioritized the molecular and biochemical properties of microbial keratinases, and the role of keratinases in bringing prodigious impact for the sustainable progress of the economy. It also emphasizes on the current development in keratinase production with the focus to improve the biochemical properties related to enzyme's catalytic activity and stability, and production of mutant and cloned microbial strains to improve the yield of keratinases. Recently, multitude molecular approaches have been employed to enhance enzyme's productivity, activity, and thermostability which makes them suitable for pharmaceutical industry and for the production of animal feed, organic fertilizers, biogas, clearing of animal hides, and detergent formulation. Hence, it can be surmised that microbial keratinolytic enzymes are the conceivable candidates for numerous commercial and industrial applications.

Production of surfactant-stable keratinase from Bacillus cereus YQ15 and its application as detergent additive

Background

With the growing concern for the environment, there are trends that bio-utilization of keratinous waste by keratinases could ease the heavy burden of keratinous waste from the poultry processing and leather industry. Especially surfactant-stable keratinases are beneficial for the detergent industry. Therefore, the production of keratinase by Bacillus cereus YQ15 was improved; the characterization and use of keratinase in detergent were also studied.

Results

A novel alkaline keratinase-producing bacterium YQ15 was isolated from feather keratin-rich soil and was identified as Bacillus cereus. Based on the improvement of medium components and culture conditions, the maximum keratinase activity (925 U/mL) was obtained after 36 h of cultivation under conditions of 35 °C and 160 rpm. Moreover, it was observed that the optimal reacting temperature and pH of the keratinase are 60 °C and 10.0, respectively; the activity was severely inhibited by PMSF and EDTA. On the contrary, the keratinase showed remarkable stability in the existence of the various surfactants, including SDS, Tween 20, Tween 60, Tween 80, and Triton X-100. Especially, 5% of Tween 20 and Tween 60 increased the activity by 100% and 60%, respectively. Furtherly, the keratinase revealed high efficiency in removing blood stains.

Conclusion

The excellent compatibility with commercial detergents and the high washing efficiency of removing blood stains suggested its suitability for potential application as a bio-detergent additive.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12896-022-00757-3.

Valorisation of keratinous wastes: A sustainable approach towards a circular economy

The valorisation of keratinous wastes involves biorefining and recovering the bioresource materials from the keratinous wastes to produce value-added keratin-based bioproducts with a broad application, distribution, and marketability potential. Valorisation of keratinous wastes increases the value of the wastes and enables more sustainable waste management towards a circular bioeconomy. The abundance of keratinous wastes as feedstock from agro-industrial processing, wool processing, and grooming industry benefits biorefinery and extraction of keratins, which could be the optimal solution for developing an ecologically and economically sustainable keratin-based economy. The transition from the current traditional linear models that are deleterious to the environment, which end energy and resources recovery through disposal by incineration and landfilling, to a more sustainable and closed-loop recycling and recovery approach that minimises pollution, disposal challenges, loss of valuable bioresources and potential revenues are required. The paper provides an overview of keratinous wastes and the compositional keratin proteins with the descriptions of the various keratin extraction methods in biorefinery and functional material synthesis, including enzymatic and microbial hydrolysis, chemical hydrolysis (acid/alkaline hydrolysis, dissolution in ionic liquids, oxidative and sulphitolysis) and chemical-free hydrolysis (steam explosion and ultrasonic). The study describes various uses and applications of keratinases and keratin-based composites fabricated through various manufacturing processes such as lyophilisation, compression moulding, solvent casting, hydrogel fabrication, sponge formation, electrospinning, and 3D printing for value-added applications.

Valorization of Livestock Keratin Waste: Application in Agricultural Fields

Livestock keratin waste is a rich source of protein. However, the unique structure of livestock keratin waste makes its valorization a great challenge. This paper reviews the main methods for the valorization of livestock keratin waste, which include chemical, biological, and other novel methods, and summarizes the main agricultural applications of keratin-based material. Livestock keratin waste is mainly used as animal feed and fertilizer. However, it has promising potential for biosorbents and in other fields. In the future, researchers should focus on the biological extraction and carbonization methods of processing and keratin-based biosorbents for the soil remediation of farmland.

Production and characterization of a new detergent-stable keratinase expressed by Pedobacter sp. 3.14.7, a novel Antarctic psychrotolerant keratin-degrading bacterium

BACKGROUND

Antarctica is one of the harshest environments in the world. Despite this fact, it has been colonized by microorganisms, which had to develop different adaptations in order to survive. By studying their enzymes, we can harness these adaptations in order to use them in various industrial processes. Keratinases (E.C. 3.4.99.11) are characterized by their robustness in withstanding extreme conditions and, along with other enzymes, are commonly added to laundry detergents, which makes their study of industrial interest.

RESULTS

In this work, a novel keratinase producer, Pedobacter sp. 3.14.7 (MF 347939.1), isolated from Antarctic birds' nests, was identified. This psychrotolerant isolate displays a typical psychrotolerant growth pattern, with an optimal temperature of 20 °C (μmax=0.23 h^-1). After 238 h, maximum proteolytic (22.00 ± 1.17 U ml^-1) and keratinolytic (33.04 ± 1.09 U ml^-1) activities were achieved with a feather sample conversion of approximately 85%. The keratinase present in crude extract was characterized as a metalloprotease with a molecular weight of 25 kDa, stable in a wide range of pH, with an optimum pH of 7.5. Optimum temperature was 55 °C. Wash performance at 20 °C using this crude extract could remove completely blood stain from cotton cloth.

CONCLUSION

We report a new keratinolytic bacteria from maritime Antarctica. Among its biochemical characteristics, its stability in the presence of different detergents and bleaching agents and its wash performance showed promising results regarding its potential use as a laundry detergent additive.

Chicken Feather Waste Valorization Into Nutritive Protein Hydrolysate: Role of Novel Thermostable Keratinase From Bacillus pacificus RSA27

Microbial keratinases exhibit a momentous role in converting keratin biowastes into exceedingly valuable protein supplements. This study reports a novel, highly stable keratinase from Bacillus pacificus RSA27 for the production of pure peptides rich in essential amino acids from chicken feathers. Purified keratinase showed a specific activity of 38.73 U/mg, 2.58-fold purification, and molecular weight of 36 kDa. Kinetic studies using a chicken feather as substrate report K_m and V_max values of 5.69 mg/ml and 142.40 μg/ml/min, respectively, suggesting significant enzyme-substrate affinity/biocatalysis. Identification and in silico structural-functional analysis of keratinase discovered the presence of distinct amino acid residues and their positions. Besides, keratinase possesses a high-affinity calcium-binding site (Asp¹²⁸, Leu¹⁶², Asn¹⁶⁴, Ile¹⁶⁶, and Val¹⁶⁸) and a catalytic triad of Asp¹¹⁹, His¹⁵¹, and Ser³⁰⁸, known attributes of serine protease (subtilisin family). Furthermore, a scale-up to 5 L fermenter revealed complete feather hydrolysis (94.5%) within 24 h with high activity (789 U/ml) and total amino acid of 153.97 μmol/ml. Finally, cytotoxicity evaluation of protein hydrolysate resulted in negligible cytotoxic effects (1.02%) on the mammalian hepatoblastoma cell line, signifying its potential biotechnological applications.

Feather-Degrading Bacillus cereus HD1: Genomic Analysis and Its Optimization for Keratinase Production and Feather Degradation

Keratinase is an important enzyme that is used to degrade feather wastes produced by poultry industries and slaughterhouses that accumulate rapidly over time. The search for keratinase-producing microorganisms is important to potentially substitute physicochemical treatments of feather waste. In this study, the genome of Bacillus cereus HD1 and its keratinolytic prowess was investigated. The whole-genome shotgun size is 5,668,864 bp consisting of 6083 genes, 69 tRNAs, and 10 rRNAs. The genomic analyses revealed 15 potential keratinase genes and other enzymes that might assist keratin degradation, such as disulfide reductase and cysteine dioxygenase. The optimal conditions for feather degradation and keratinase production by B. cereus HD1 such as incubation time, pH, temperature, yeast extract, and glycerol concentrations were determined to be 5 days, pH 8, 37 °C, 0.05% (w/v), and 0.1% (v/v), respectively. Under optimized conditions, B. cereus HD1 exhibited feather degradation of 65%, with bacterial growth and maximum keratinase activity of 1.3 × 10¹¹ CFU/mL and 41 U/mL, respectively, after 5 days of incubation in a feather basal medium. The findings obtained from this study may facilitate further research into utilizing B. cereus HD1 as a prominent keratinolytic enzymes production host and warrant potential biotechnological applications.

Purification and Characterization of the Protease from Staphylococcus xylosus A2 Isolated from Harbin Dry Sausages

The protease generated from Staphylococcus (S.) xylosus A2, which was isolated from Harbin dry sausages, was purified and characterized. The molecular weight of the purified protease was approximately 21.5 kDa, and its relative activity reached the highest at pH 6.0 and 50 °C. At pH 4.0−8.0 and temperatures of 20−50 °C, the protease was stable. Its activity was significantly improved by Ca2+ and Zn2+ ions (p < 0.05). The Michaelis constant and maximum velocity of the protease were 2.94 mg/mL and 19.45 U/mL·min, respectively. The thermodynamic parameters analysis suggested that the protease showed better catalytic properties at 40 °C. Moreover, the protease could hydrolyze meat proteins, and obtained hydrolysate is non-cytotoxic to the HEK-293 cells. These findings provide a theoretical basis for understanding the enzymatic characterization of S. xylosus A2 protease and its future application in fermented meat products.

A Newly Isolated Strain Lysobacter brunescens YQ20 and Its Performance on Wool Waste Biodegradation

Wool keratin is difficult to degrade as comparing to feathers because of its tough secondary structure. In order to develop an approach for high-value utilization of wool fiber waste by keratinolytic microorganisms, which is produced from shearing, weaving, and industrial processing of wool, screening of wool-degrading bacterium with high degradation efficiency were performed in this study. To this end, Lysobacter brunescens YQ20 was identified and characterized. The optimized conditions for wool degradation were pH 9.0 and 37°C with 20% liquid volume of Erlenmeyer flask. After fermentation, 15 essential amino acids were detected when wool fiber waste was fermented. The total amino acids produced from 1% wool per hour were 13.7 mg/L. The concentration was 8.6-fold higher than that produced by the strain Stenotrophomonas maltophilia BBE11-1, which had previously been reported to have the highest wool-degrading capacity. Our study reports the first Lysobacter strain that exhibits efficient wool degradation and yields higher concentrations of amino acids than previously reported strains. Whole-genome sequencing indicated that there were 18 keratinase-like genes in the genome of YQ20, which exhibited a long evolutionary distance from those of Bacillus. Therefore, L. brunescens YQ20 may have applications in the environmentally friendly management of wool waste as fertilizer in agriculture.

Isolation and identification of a feather degrading Bacillus tropicus strain Gxun-17 from marine environment and its enzyme characteristics

Background

Feathers are the most abundant agricultural waste produced by poultry farms. The accumulation of a large number of feathers not only seriously pollutes the environment but also causes the waste of protein resources. The degradation of feather waste by keratinase-producing strains is currently a promising method. Therefore, screening high-producing keratinase strains from marine environment and studying the fermentation conditions, enzymatic properties and feather degradation mechanism are crucial for efficient degradation of feathers.

Results

A novel efficient feather-degrading bacteria, Gxun-17, isolated from the soil sample of a marine duck farm of Beibu Gulf in Guangxi, China, was identified as Bacillus tropicus. The optimum fermentation conditions were obtained by single factor and orthogonal tests as follows: feather concentration of 15 g/L, maltose concentration of 10.0 g/L, MgSO₄ concentration of 0.1 g/L, initial pH of 7.0 and temperature of 32.5 °C. The strain completely degraded the feathers within 48 h, and the highest keratinase activity was 112.57 U/mL, which was 3.18-fold that obtained with the basic medium (35.37 U/mL). Detecting the keratinase activity and the content of sulphur-containing compounds in the fermentation products showed that the degradation of feathers by the strain might be a synergistic effect of the enzyme and sulphite. The keratinase showed optimal enzyme activity at pH 7.0 and temperature of 60 °C. The keratinase had the best performance on the casein substrate. When casein was used as the substrate, the K_m and V_max values were 15.24 mg/mL and 0.01 mg/(mL·min), respectively. Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺, Co²⁺, Al³⁺, phenylmethylsulphonyl fluoride and isopropanol inhibited keratinase activity, which indicated that it was a serine keratinase. Conversely, the keratinase activity strongly increased with the addition of Mn²⁺ and β-mercaptoethanol.

Conclusions

A novel feather-degrading B. tropicus Gxun-17 was obtained from marine environment. The strain adapted the extreme conditions such as low temperature, high salt and high pressure. Thus, the keratinase had high activity, wide range of temperature and pH, salt tolerance and other characteristics, which had potential application value.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12896-022-00742-w.

Keratinases as Versatile Enzymatic Tools for Sustainable Development

To reduce anthropological pressure on the environment, the implementation of novel technologies in present and future economies is needed for sustainable development. The food industry, with dairy and meat production in particular, has a significant environmental impact. Global poultry production is one of the fastest-growing meat producing sectors and is connected with the generation of burdensome streams of manure, offal and feather waste. In 2020, the EU alone produced around 3.2 million tonnes of poultry feather waste composed primarily of keratin, a protein biopolymer resistant to conventional proteolytic enzymes. If not managed properly, keratin waste can significantly affect ecosystems, contributing to environmental pollution, and pose a serious hazard to human and livestock health. In this article, the application of keratinolytic enzymes and microorganisms for promising novel keratin waste management methods with generation of new value-added products, such as bioactive peptides, vitamins, prion decontamination agents and biomaterials were reviewed.

The Garbage Enzyme with Chinese Hoenylocust Fruits Showed Better Properties and Application than When Using the Garbage Enzyme Alone

Garbage enzyme (GE) is a vinegar or alcohol product derived from fermenting fresh kitchen waste, such as vegetable and fruit residues (peels, cuttings and bits), sugar (brown sugar, jaggery or molasses sugar) and water. Chinese honeylocust fruits (Gleditsia sinensis) have been used in China for at least 2000 years as a detergent. The aim of the study was to investigate the properties and application of Chinese honeylocust garbage enzyme (CHGE), which is produced when equal amounts of Chinese honeylocust fruits and fresh wastes are mixed. The results showed that CHGE had lesser microbial communities and lower surface tension than GE. CHGE also had higher viscosity, foam stability and emulsion stability than GE. Compared with GE, CHGE induced higher enzymatic amylase, cellulase, lipase and protease activities. CHGE had stronger detergency than GE and a 100× dilution of CHGE could significantly remove pesticide residues after a 30 min soaking treatment. The study showed that as a biological detergent, CHGE is safer and more environmentally friendly than GE and has remarkable washing and cleaning power. The preparation method of the detergent is simple: it can be prepared at home using fruit and vegetable waste, which is beneficial to the secondary utilization of waste and the reduction of pollution to the environment and damage to human health.

Multipotential Alkaline Protease From a Novel Pyxidicoccus sp. 252: Ecofriendly Replacement to Various Chemical Processes

A newly isolated alkaline protease-producing myxobacterium was isolated from soil. The strain was identified as Pyxidicoccus sp. S252 on the basis of 16S rRNA sequence analysis. The extracellular alkaline proteases produced by isolate S252 (PyCP) was optimally active in the pH range of 11.0–12.0 and temperature range of 40–50°C The zymogram of PyCP showed six caseinolytic protease bands. The proteases were stable in the pH range of 8.0–10.0 and temperature range of 40–50°C. The activity of PyCP was enhanced in the presence of Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Cu²⁺, Tween-20, and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) (hydrogen peroxide), whereas in Triton X-100, glycerol, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), and Co²⁺, it was stable. PyCP showed a potential in various applications. The addition of PyCP in the commercial detergent enhanced the wash performance of the detergent by efficiently removing the stains of tomato ketchup and coffee. PyCP efficiently hydrolyzed the gelatin layer on X-ray film to release the embedded silver. PyCP also showed potent dehairing of goat skin and also efficiently deproteinized sea shell waste indicating its application in chitin extraction. Thus, the results of the present study indicate that Pyxidicoccus sp. S252 proteases have the potential to be used as an ecofriendly replacement of chemicals in several industrial processes.

Chryseobacterium aquifrigidense FANN1 Produced Detergent-Stable Metallokeratinase and Amino Acids Through the Abasement of Chicken Feathers

Microbial keratinases’ versatility in the beneficiation of keratinous waste biomass into high-value products prompts their application in diverse spheres hence, advancing green technology and the bioeconomy. Consequently, a feather-degrading Chryseobacterium aquifrigidense FANN1 (NCBI: MW169027) was used to produce keratinase, and its biochemical properties were determined. The optimization of physicochemical parameters and analysis of the free amino acid constituents of the feather hydrolysate were also carried out. FANN1 showed a maximum keratinase yield of 1,664.55 ± 42.43 U/mL after 72 h, at optimal process conditions that included initial medium pH, incubation temperature, inoculum size, and chicken feather concentration of 8, 30°C, 4% (v/v), and 15 (g/L), respectively. Analysis of degradation product showed 50.32% and 23.25% as the protein value and total free amino acids, respectively, with a relatively high abundance of arginine (2.25%) and serine (2.03%). FANN1 keratinase was optimally active at pH 8.0 and relatively moderate to high temperature (40–50°C). EDTA and 1,10-phenanthroline inhibited the keratinase activity, and that suggests a metallo-keratinase. The enzyme showed remarkable stability in the presence of chemical agents, with residual activity 141 ± 10.38%, 98 ± 0.43%, 111 ± 1.73%, 124 ± 0.87%, 104 ± 3.89%, 107 ± 7.79%, and 112 ± 0.86% against DTT, H₂O₂, DMSO, acetonitrile, triton X-100, tween-80, and SDS, respectively. The residual activity of FANN1 keratinase was enhanced by Sunlight (129%), Ariel (116%), MAQ (151%), and Surf (143%) compared to the control after 60 min preincubation. Likewise, the enzyme was remarkably stable in the presence Fe³⁺ (120 ± 5.06%), Ca²⁺ (100 ± 10.33%), Na⁺ (122 ± 2.95%), Al³⁺ (106 ± 10.33%); while Co²⁺ (68 ± 8.22%) and Fe²⁺ (51 ± 8.43%) elicited the most repressive effect on keratinase activity. The findings suggest that C. aquifrigidense FANN1 is a potential candidate for keratinous wastes bio-recycling, and the associated keratinase has a good prospect for application in detergent formulation.

The keratinolytic bacteria Bacillus cytotoxicus as a source of novel proteases and feather protein hydrolysates with antioxidant activities

BACKGROUND

Argentina's geothermal areas are niches of a rich microbial diversity. In 2020, species of Bacillus cytotoxicus were isolated for the first time from these types of pristine natural areas. Bacillus cytotoxicus strains demonstrated the capability to grow and degrade chicken feathers with the concomitant production of proteases with keratinolytic activity, enzymes that have multitude of industrial applications. The aim of this research was to study the production of the proteolytic enzymes and its characterization. Also, feather protein hydrolysates produced during fermentation were characterized.

RESULTS

Among the thermotolerant strains isolated from the Domuyo geothermal area (Neuquén province, Argentina), Bacillus cytotoxicus LT-1 and Oll-15 were selected and put through submerged cultures using feather wastes as sole carbon, nitrogen, and energy source in order to obtain proteolytic enzymes and protein hydrolysates. Complete degradation of feathers was achieved after 48 h. Zymograms demonstrated the presence of several proteolytic enzymes with an estimated molecular weight between 50 and > 120 kDa. Optimum pH and temperatures of Bacillus cytotoxicus LT-1 crude extract were 7.0 and 40 °C, meanwhile for Oll-15 were 7.0 and 50 °C. Crude extracts were inhibited by EDTA and 1,10 phenanthroline indicating the presence of metalloproteases. Feather protein hydrolysates showed an interesting antioxidant potential measured through radical-scavenging and Fe³⁺-reducing activities.

CONCLUSION

This work represents an initial approach on the study of the biotechnological potential of proteases produced by Bacillus cytotoxicus. The results demonstrated the importance of continuous search for new biocatalysts with new characteristics and enzymes to be able to cope with the demands in the market.

Keratinases Produced by Aspergillus stelliformis, Aspergillus sydowii, and Fusarium brachygibbosum Isolated from Human Hair: Yield and Activity

Twenty fungal strains belonging to 17 species and isolated from male scalp hair were tested for their capacity to hydrolyze keratinous material from chicken feather. The identification of the three most efficient species was confirmed by sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA. Activities of fungal keratinases produced by Aspergillus stelliformis (strain AUMC 10920), A. sydowii (AUMC 10935), and Fusarium brachygibbosum (AUMC 10937) were 113, 120, and 130 IU mg⁻¹ enzymes, respectively. The most favorable conditions were at pH 8.0 and 50 °C. Keratinase activity was markedly inhibited by EDTA and metal ions Ca⁺², Co⁺², Ni⁺², Cu⁺², Fe⁺², Mg⁺², and Zn⁺², with differences between the fungal species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on the activity of keratinase produced by A. stelliformis, A. sydowii, and F. brachygibbosum. F. brachygibbosum keratinase was the most active, but the species is not recommended because of its known phytopathogenicty. Aspergillus sydowii has many known biotechnological solutions and here we add another application of the species, as producer of keratinases. We introduce A. stelliformis as new producer of active fungal keratinases for biotechnological solutions, such as in the management of keratinous waste in poultry industry.

Novel recombinant keratin degrading subtilisin like serine alkaline protease from Bacillus cereus isolated from marine hydrothermal vent crabs

Microbial secondary metabolites from extreme environments like hydrothermal vents are a promising source for industrial applications. In our study the protease gene from Bacillus cereus obtained from shallow marine hydrothermal vents in the East China Sea was cloned, expressed and purified. The protein sequence of 38 kDa protease SLSP-k was retrieved from mass spectrometry and identified as a subtilisin serine proteinase. The novel SLSP-k is a monomeric protein with 38 amino acid signal peptides being active over wide pH (7-11) and temperature (40-80 °C) ranges, with maximal hydrolytic activities at pH 10 and at 50 °C temperature. The hydrolytic activity is stimulated by Ca2+, Co2+, Mn2+, and DTT. It is inhibited by Fe2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, EDTA, and PMSF. The SLSP-k is stable in anionic, non-anionic detergents, and solvents. The ability to degrade keratin in chicken feather and hair indicates that this enzyme is suitable for the degradation of poultry waste without the loss of nutritionally essential amino acids which otherwise are lost in hydrothermal processing. Therefore, the proteinase is efficient in environmental friendly bioconversion of animal waste into fertilizers or value added products such as secondary animal feedstuffs.

Molecular strategies to increase keratinase production in heterologous expression systems for industrial applications

Keratinase is an important enzyme that can degrade recalcitrant keratinous wastes to form beneficial recyclable keratin hydrolysates. Keratinase is not only important as an alternative to reduce environmental pollution caused by chemical treatments of keratinous wastes, but it also has industrial significance. Currently, the bioproduction of keratinase from native keratinolytic host is considered low, and this hampers large-scale usage of the enzyme. Straightforward approaches of cloning and expression of recombinant keratinases from native keratinolytic host are employed to elevate the amount of keratinase produced. However, this is still insufficient to compensate for the lack of its large-scale production to meet the industrial demands. Hence, this review aimed to highlight the various sources of keratinase and the strategies to increase its production in native keratinolytic hosts. Molecular strategies to increase the production of recombinant keratinase such as plasmid selection, promoter engineering, chromosomal integration, signal peptide and propeptide engineering, codon optimization, and glycoengineering were also described. These mentioned strategies have been utilized in heterologous expression hosts, namely, Escherichia coli, Bacillus sp., and Pichia pastoris, as they are most widely used for the heterologous propagations of keratinases to further intensify the production of recombinant keratinases adapted to better suit the large-scale demand for them. KEY POINTS: • Molecular strategies to enhance keratinase production in heterologous hosts. • Construction of a prominent keratinolytic host from a native strain. • Patent analysis of keratinase production shows rapid high interest in molecular field.

Chicken Feather Waste Hydrolysate as a Superior Biofertilizer in Agroindustry

Billions of tons of keratinous waste in the form of feathers, antlers, bristles, claws, hair, hoofs, horns, and wool are generated by different industries and their demolition causes environmental deterioration. Chicken feathers have 92% keratin that can be a good source of peptides, amino acids, and minerals. Traditional methods of feather hydrolysis require large energy inputs, and also reduce the content of amino acids and net protein utilization values. Biological treatment of feathers with keratinolytic microbes is a feasible and environmental favorable preference for the formulation of hydrolysate that can be used as bioactive peptides, protein supplement, livestock feed, biofertilizer, etc. The presence of amino acids, soluble proteins, and peptides in hydrolysate facilitates the growth of microbes in rhizosphere that promotes the uptake and utilization of nutrients from soil. Application of hydrolysate enhances water holding capacity, C/N ratio, and mineral content of soil. The plant growth promoting activities of hydrolysate potentiates its possible use in organic farming, and improves soil ecosystem and microbiota. This paper reviews the current scenario on the methods available for management of keratinous waste, nutritional quality of hydrolysate generated using keratinolytic microbes, and its possible application as plant growth promoter in agroindustry.

Engineered pro-peptide enhances the catalytic activity of keratinase to improve the conversion ability of feather waste

Keratinase is an attractive industrial enzyme that can specifically catalyze keratin waste to obtain value-added products. A challenge to the application of keratinase is improving catalytic capacity to achieve efficient hydrolysis. In this study, we effectively expressed the keratinase gene from Bacillus licheniformis BBE11-1 in Bacillus subtilis WB600 based on pro-peptide engineering. Partial deletion of the pro-peptide sequence and the substitution of amino acid at the pro-peptide cleavage site (P1) suggested that the "chaperone effect" and "cleavage efficiency" of the pro-peptide determine the activity of the mature enzyme. Subsequently, seven target sites that can increase the activity of the mature enzyme by 16%-66% were obtained through the multiple sequence alignment of pro-peptides and site-directed mutation. We further performed combinatorial mutations at six sites based on the design principle of three-codon saturation mutations and obtained mutant 2-D12 (236.8 KU/mg) with a mature enzyme activity of 186% of the original (127.6 KU/mg). Finally, continuous fermentation was carried out in a 5-L bioreactor for 22 h, and the activity of the 2-D12 mature enzyme was increased to 391.6 KU/mg. Most importantly, 2-D12 could degrade more than 90% of feather waste into amino acids and peptides within 12 h with the aid of sulfite.