Design, synthesis, and characterization of peptide nanostructures having ion channel activity

Synthetic peptide scaffolds as ion channels and molecular carriers

Transmembrane ion exchange controls biological functions and is essential for life. Over the years, a great variety of nature-inspired artificial ion channels and carriers have been synthesized to control and promote ion exchange across biological membranes. In this context, peptides emerged as ideal scaffolds for synthetic ion channels due to their biocompatibility, accessibility and chemical versatility. Peptides have already shown their potential for the construction of a range of synthetic ion transporters either alone or in combination with other molecular scaffolds. Among the great diversity of peptide-based ion transporters, we can find key examples of single-molecule and supramolecular transmembrane ion channels and ionophores. Peptide scaffolds have also found great potential for the transmembrane delivery of biomolecular cargos such as nucleic acids and proteins. This review covers some of the most relevant advances in the peptide-based ion transport field from the last few years.

Foldamer-mediated transport across phospholipid bilayers

Crucial physiological processes, like neural communication and muscle contraction, are mediated by protein channels in cell membranes. These natural channels typically have a central hydrophilic pore with tightly defined dimensions, which can be opened or closed ('gated') by external stimuli. Mimicking natural ion channels using synthetic molecules is a long-standing goal in artificial channel research. Although current synthetic channels have not yet achieved the same combination of high activity, high selectivity, and gating as natural channels, foldamers offer a new approach. Foldamers are unnatural oligomers that fold into defined three-dimensional shapes, similar to the way that natural polypeptides fold into secondary structures. With defined shapes and often multi-nanometre dimensions, foldamers have become valuable tools to mimic the behaviour of natural proteins in membranes. This review highlights selected recent examples of foldamer channels, examples that indicate how foldamer architectures may lead to controllable channels with high activity and selectivity.

Synthesis of metal-binding amino acids

The ability for amino acid residues to bind metals underpins the functions of metalloproteins to conduct a plethora of critical processes in living organisms as well as unnatural applications in the fields of catalysis, sensing and medicinal chemistry. The capability to access metal-binding peptides heavily relies on the ability to generate appropriate building blocks. This review outlines recently developed strategies for the synthesis of metal binding non-proteinogenic amino acids. The chemistries to access, as well as to incorporate these amino acids into peptides is presented herein.

Design of Chiral β-Double Helices from γ-Peptide Foldamers

Chirality is ubiquitous in nature, and homochirality is manifested in many biomolecules. Although β-double helices are rare in peptides and proteins, they consist of alternating L- and D-amino acids. No peptide double helices with homochiral amino acids have been observed. Here, we report chiral β-double helices constructed from γ-peptides consisting of alternating achiral (E)-α,β-unsaturated 4,4-dimethyl γ-amino acids and chiral (E)-α,β-unsaturated γ-amino acids in both single crystals and in solution. The two independent strands of the same peptide intertwine to form a β-double helix structure, and it is stabilized by inter-strand hydrogen bonds. The peptides with chiral (E)-α,β-unsaturated γ-amino acids derived from α-L-amino acids adopt a (P)-β-double helix, whereas peptides consisting of (E)-α,β-unsaturated γ-amino acids derived from α-D-amino acids adopt an (M)-β-double helix conformation. The circular dichroism (CD) signature of the (P) and (M)-β-double helices and the stability of these peptides at higher temperatures were examined. Furthermore, ion transport studies suggested that these peptides transport ions across membranes. Even though the structural analogy suggests that these new β-double helices are structurally different from those of the α-peptide β-double helices, they retain ion transport activity. The results reported here may open new avenues in the design of functional foldamers.

Crown Ether-Based Ion Transporters in Bilayer Membranes

Bilayer membranes that enhance the stability of the cell are essential for cell survival, separating and protecting the interior of the cell from its external environment. Membrane-based channel proteins are crucial for sustaining cellular activities. However, dysfunction of these proteins would induce serial channelopathies, which could be substituted by artificial ion channel analogs. Crown ethers (CEs) are widely studied in the area of artificial ion channels owing to their intrinsic host-guest interaction with different kinds of organic and inorganic ions. Other advantages such as lower price, chemical stability, and easier modification also make CE a research hotspot in the field of synthetic transmembrane nanopores. And numerous CEs-based membrane-active synthetic ion channels were designed and fabricated in the past decades. Herein, the recent progress of CEs-based synthetic ion transporters has been comprehensively summarized in this review, including their design principles, functional mechanisms, controllable properties, and biomedical applications. Furthermore, this review has been concluded by discussing the future opportunities and challenges facing this research field. It is anticipated that this review could offer some inspiration for the future fabrication of novel CEs-derived ion transporters with more advanced structures, properties, and practical applications.

Recent Advances in Bioactive Artificial Ionophores

Several life-threatening diseases, also known as 'Channelopathies' are linked to irregularities in ion transport proteins. Significant research efforts have fostered the development of artificial transport systems that facilitates to restore the functions of impaired natural transport proteins. Indeed, a few of these artificial ionophores demonstrate the rare combination of transmembrane ion transport and important biological activity, offering early promises of suitability in 'channel replacement therapy'. In this review, structural facets and functions of both cationophores and anionophores are discussed. Ionophores that are toxic to various bacteria and yeast, could be exploited as antimicrobial agent. Nevertheless, few non-toxic ionophores offer the likelihood of treating a wide range of genetic diseases caused by the gene mutations. In addition, their ability to disrupt cellular homeostasis and to alter lysosomal pH endow ionophores as promising candidates for cancer treatment. Overall, critically outlining the advances in artificial ionophores in terms of in vitro ion transport, possible modes of action and biological activities enables us to propose possible future roadmaps in this research area.

Sensing, Transport and Other Potential Biomedical Applications of Pseudopeptides

Pseudopeptides are privileged synthetic molecules built from the designed combination of peptide-like and abiotic artificial moieties. Consequently, they are benefited from the advantages of both families of chemical structures: modular synthesis, chemical and functional diversity, tailored three-dimensional structure, usually high stability in biological media and low non-specific toxicity. Accordingly, in the last years, these compounds have been used for different biomedical applications, ranging from bio-sensing, ion transport, the molecular recognition of biologically relevant species, drug delivery or gene transfection. This review highlights a selection of the most remarkable and recent advances in this field.

Molecular dynamics simulations for designing biomimetic pores based on internally functionalized self-assembling α,γ-peptide nanotubes

A molecular dynamics study on internally functionalized peptide nanotubes composed of α- and γ-amino acids self-assembled in lipid bilayers is presented. One of the main advantages of peptide nanotubes composed of γ-amino acids is that the properties of their inner cavities can be tuned by introducing different functions on β-carbon of the γ-amino acid. In the work described here we studied the effect of the presence of different numbers of hydroxyl groups in different positions in the lumen of these channels when they are inserted into a lipid bilayer and assessed how they affect the structural and dynamic behavior of the modified peptide nanotubes as well as the transmembrane transport of different ions. The results provided atomic information about the effect of polar groups on the dynamic, structural and transport properties of this type of peptidic channel upon insertion into lipid bilayers, projecting a promising future for their use as biomimetic channels when properly inner-derivatized. Furthermore, the chemical versatility of the hydroxyl groups in the lumen of the peptide nanotubes would enable appealing applications for these channels, such as a controlled method for the activation/inactivation of the transmembrane transport along the nanopore.

Crown ether helical peptides are preferentially inserted in lipid bilayers as a transmembrane ion channels

Oriented circular dichroism was used to study the alignment crown ether-modified peptides. The influence of different N- and C-functionalities was assessed using at variable peptide:lipid ratios from 1:20 to 1:200. Neither the functionalities nor the concentration had any major effect on the orientation. The alignment of the 21-mer peptides was also examined with lipid membranes of different bilayer thickness. The use of synchrotron radiation as light source allowed the study of peptide:lipid molar ratios from 1:20 to 1:1000. For all conditions studied, the peptides were found to be predominantly incorporated as a transmembrane helix into the membrane, especially at low peptide concentration, but started to aggregate on the membrane surface at higher peptide:lipid ratios. The structural information on the preferred trans-bilayer alignment of the crown ether functional groups explains their ion conductivity and is useful for the further development of membrane-active nanochemotherapeutics.

Structures and conformation of a benzo-12-crown-4 containing dipeptide

Crystal structures of the dipeptide Boc-12-Crown-4-L-DOPA-Gly-OMe (chi) and Boc-12-Crown-4-D/L-DOPA-Gly-OMe (rac) were solved by single crystal X-ray diffraction. Analysis of the packing differences in the crystal reveals that the presence of a water molecule in chi enables intermolecular contacts with the solvent that result in a different conformation of the dipeptide backbone itself. An uncommon N-H…N interaction stabilizes the peptide in its solid state.

Cyclodextrin ion channels

Seventeen derivatives of α- and β-cyclodextrins were prepared from the cyclodextrin per-6-azide by "click" cyclization with terminal alkynes. Sixteen of these "half-channel" compounds showed significant activity as ion channels in planar bilayer members as assessed by the voltage-clamp technique. Activity ranged from persistent square-top openings to highly erratic conductance; mixed behaviours were evident in virtually all data recorded. Some of the erratic behaviours were shown to follow an apparent power-law distribution of open duration times. The activities observed for the suite were summarized using a model-free activity grid method which displays conductance, duration, and opening behaviour. The overall activity shows the clustering of conductance-duration indicating that activity arises from system properties rather that solely as a property of the compound. The activity grids also support an analysis of structure-activity relationships as they apply to the global behaviour of the compounds and reveal the complexity of a single structure change in controlling the distribution of concurrent conductance behaviours. Transient blockage of channel activity by the hydrophobic guest of the cyclodextrin (1-adamantyl carboxylate) is consistent with the formation of an end-to-end dimer channel among several other competing and interconverting structures.

Investigation of the mechanism of action of novel amphipathic peptides: insights from solid-state NMR studies of oriented lipid bilayers

We have investigated in the present study the effect of both non-selective and selective cationic 14-mer peptides on the lipid orientation of DMPC bilayers by (31)P solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Depending on the position of substitution, these peptides adopt mainly either an α-helical structure able to permeabilize DMPC and DMPG vesicles (non-selective peptides) or an intermolecular β-sheet structure only able to permeabilize DMPG vesicles (selective peptides). Several systems have been investigated, namely bilayers mechanically oriented between glass plates as well as bicelles oriented with their normal perpendicular or parallel to the external magnetic field. The results have been compared with spectral simulations with the goal of elucidating the difference in the interaction of these two types of peptides with zwitterionic lipid bilayers. The results indicate that the perturbation induced by selective peptides is much greater than that induced by non-selective peptides in all the lipid systems investigated, and this perturbation has been associated to the aggregation of the selective β-sheet peptides in these systems. On the other hand, the oriented lipid spectra obtained in the presence of non-selective peptides suggest the presence of toroidal pores. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Interfacially Active Peptides and Proteins. Guest Editors: William C. Wimley and Kalina Hristova.

Ion-channels: goals for function-oriented synthesis

Ion channels provide a conductance pathway for the passive transport of ions across membranes. These functional molecules perform key tasks in biological systems such as neuronal signaling, muscular control, and sensing. Recently, function-oriented synthesis researchers began to focus on ion channels with the goal of modifying the function of existing ion channels (ion selectivity, gating) or creating new channels with novel functions. Both approaches, ion channel engineering and de novo design, have involved synthetic chemists, biochemists, structural biologists, and neurochemists. Researchers characterize the function of ion channels by measuring their conductance in samples of biological membranes (patch clamp) or artificial membranes (planar lipid bilayers). At the single molecule level, these measurements require special attention to the purity of the sample, a challenge that synthetic chemists should be aware of. Ideally, researchers study the function of channels while also acquiring structural data (X-ray, NMR) to understand and predict how synthetic modifications alter channel function. Long-term oriented researchers would like to apply synthetic ion channels to single molecule sensing and to implantat these synthetic systems in living organisms as tools or for the treatment of channelopathies. In this Account, we discuss our own work on synthetic ion channels and explain the shift of our research focus from a de novo design of oligo-THFs and oligo-THF-amino acids to ion channel engineering. We introduce details about two biological lead structures for ion channel engineering: the gramicidin β(6,3) helix as an example of a channel with a narrow ion conductance pathway and the outer membrane porins (OmpF, OmpG) with their open β-barrel structure. The increase and the reversal of ion selectivity of these systems and the hydrophobic match/mismatch of the channel with the phospholipid bilayer are of particular interest. For engineering ion channels, we need to supplement the single-point attachment of a synthetic modulator with the synthesis of a more challenging two-point attachment. The successful function-oriented synthesis of ion channels will require interdisciplinary efforts that include new electrophysiology techniques, efficient synthesis (peptide/protein/organic), and good structural analysis.

Exploiting peptide nanostructures to construct functional artificial ion channels

Natural ion channel proteins possess remarkable properties that researchers could exploit to develop nanochemotherapeutics and diagnostic devices. Unfortunately, the poor stability, limited availability, and complexity of these structures have precluded their use in practical devices. One solution to these limitations is to develop simpler molecular systems through chemical synthesis that mimic the salient properties of artificial ion channels. Inspired by natural channel proteins, our group has developed a family of peptide nanostructures thatcreate channels for ions by aligning crown ethers on top of each other when they adopt an α-helical conformation. Advantages to this crown ether/peptide framework approach include the ease of synthesis, the predictability of their conformations, and the ability to fine-tune and engineer their properties. We have synthesized these structures using solid phase methods from artificial crown ether amino acids made from L-DOPA. Circular dichroism and FTIR spectroscopy studies in different media confirmed that the nanostructures adopt the predicted α-helical conformation. Fluorescence studies verified the crown ether stacking arrangement. We confirmed the channel activity by single-channel measurements using a modified patch-clamp technique, planar lipid bilayer (PLB) assays, and various vesicle experiments. From the results, we estimate that a 6 Å distance between two relays is ideal for sodium cation transport, but relatively efficient ion transport can still occur with an 11 Å distance between two crown ethers. Biophysical studies demonstrated that peptide channels operate as monomers in an equilibrium between adsorption at the surface and an active, transmembrane orientation. Toward practical applications of these systems, we have prepared channel analogs that bear a biotin moiety, and we have used them as nanotransducers successfully to detect avidin. Analogs of channel peptide nanostructures showed cytotoxicity against breast and leukemia cancer cells. Overall, we have prepared well-defined nanostructures with designed properties, demonstrated their transport abilities, and described their mechanism of action. We have also illustrated the advantages and the versatility of polypeptides for the construction of functional nanoscale artificial ion channels.

Intrinsically unstructured proteins by design-electrostatic interactions can control binding, folding, and function of a helix-loop-helix heterodimer

Intrinsically disordered proteins that exist as unordered monomeric structures in aqueous solution at pH 7 but fold into four-helix bundles upon binding to recognized polypeptide targets have been designed. NMR and CD spectra of the monomeric polypeptides show the hallmarks of unordered structures, whereas in the bound state they are highly helical. Analytical ultracentrifugation data shows that the polypeptides bind to their targets to form exclusively heterodimers at neutral pH. To demonstrate the relationship between binding, folding, and function, a catalytic site for ester hydrolysis was introduced into an unordered and largely inactive monomer, but that was structured and catalytically active in the presence of a specific polypeptide target. Electrostatic interactions between surface-exposed residues inhibited the binding and folding of the monomers at pH 7. Charge-charge repulsion between ionizable amino acids was thus found to be sufficient to disrupt binding between polypeptide chains despite their inherent propensities for structure formation and may be involved in the folding and function of inherently disordered proteins in biology.

Ion permeation by a folded multiblock amphiphilic oligomer achieved by hierarchical construction of self-assembled nanopores

A multiblock amphiphilic molecule 1, with a tetrameric alternating sequence of hydrophilic and hydrophobic units, adopts a folded structure in a liposomal membrane like a multipass transmembrane protein, and is able to transport alkali metal cations through the membrane. Hill's analysis and conductance measurements, analyzed by the Hille equation, revealed that the tetrameric assembly of 1 forms a 0.53 nm channel allowing for permeation of cations. Since neither 3, bearing flexible hydrophobic units and forming no stacked structures in the membrane, nor 2, a monomeric version of 1, is able to transport cations, the folded conformation of 1 in the membrane is likely essential for realizing its function. Thus, function and hierarchically formed higher-order structures of 1, is strongly correlated with each other like proteins and other biological macromolecules.

Determining the mode of action involved in the antimicrobial activity of synthetic peptides: a solid-state NMR and FTIR study

We have previously shown that leucine to lysine substitution(s) in neutral synthetic crown ether containing 14-mer peptide affect the peptide structure and its ability to permeabilize bilayers. Depending on the substitution position, the peptides adopt mainly either a α-helical structure able to permeabilize dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG) vesicles (nonselective peptides) or an intermolecular β-sheet structure only able to permeabilize DMPG vesicles (selective peptides). In this study, we have used a combination of solid-state NMR and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to investigate the effects of nonselective α-helical and selective intermolecular β-sheet peptides on both types of bilayers. (31)P NMR results indicate that both types of peptides interact with the headgroups of DMPC and DMPG bilayers. (2)H NMR and Fourier transform infrared results reveal an ordering of the hydrophobic core of bilayers when leakage is noted, i.e., for DMPG vesicles in the presence of both types of peptides and DMPC vesicles in the presence of nonselective peptides. However, selective peptides have no significant effect on the ordering of DMPC acyl chains. The ability of these 14-mer peptides to permeabilize lipid vesicles therefore appears to be related to their ability to increase the order of the bilayer hydrophobic core.

Revisiting peptide amphiphilicity for membrane pore formation

It has previously been shown that an amphipathic de novo designed peptide made of 10 leucines and four phenylalanines substituted with crown ethers induces vesicle leakage without selectivity. To gain selectivity against negatively charged dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG) bilayers, one or two leucines of the peptide were substituted with positively charged residues at each position. All peptides induce significant calcein leakage of DMPG vesicles. However, some peptides do not induce significant leakage of zwitterionic dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles and are thus active against only bacterial model membranes. The intravesicular leakage is induced by pore formation instead of membrane micellization. Nonselective peptides are mostly helical, while selective peptides mainly adopt an intermolecular β-sheet structure. This study therefore demonstrates that the position of the lysine residues significantly influences the secondary structure and bilayer selectivity of an amphipathic 14-mer peptide, with β-sheet peptides being more selective than helical peptides.

Helical membrane peptides to modulate cell function

In recent years there has been an abundance of research into the potential of helical peptides to influence cell function. These peptides have been used to achieve a variety of different outcomes from cell repair to cell death, depending upon the peptide sequence and the nature of its interactions with cell membranes and membrane proteins. In this critical review, we summarise several mechanisms by which helical peptides, acting as either transporters, inhibitors, agonists or antibiotics, can have significant effects on cell membranes and can radically affect the internal mechanisms of the cell. The various approaches to peptide design are discussed, including the role of naturally-occurring proteins in the design of these helical peptides and current breakthroughs in the use of non-natural (and therefore more stable) peptide scaffolds. Most importantly, the current successful applications of these peptides, and their potential uses in the field of medicine, are reviewed (131 references).

Membrane interactions and dynamics of a 21-mer cytotoxic peptide: a solid-state NMR study

We have investigated the membrane interactions and dynamics of a 21-mer cytotoxic model peptide that acts as an ion channel by solid-state NMR spectroscopy. To shed light on its mechanism of membrane perturbation, (31)P and (2)H NMR experiments were performed on 21-mer peptide-containing bicelles. (31)P NMR results indicate that the 21-mer peptide stabilizes the bicelle structure and orientation in the magnetic field and perturbs the lipid polar head group conformation. On the other hand, (2)H NMR spectra reveal that the 21-mer peptide orders the lipid acyl chains upon binding. (15)N NMR experiments performed in DMPC bilayers stacked between glass plates also reveal that the 21-mer peptide remains at the bilayer surface. (15)N NMR experiments in perpendicular DMPC bicelles indicate that the 21-mer peptide does not show a circular orientational distribution in the bicelle planar region. Finally, (13)C NMR experiments were used to study the 21-mer peptide dynamics in DMPC multilamellar vesicles. By analyzing the (13)CO spinning sidebands, the results show that the 21-mer peptide is immobilized upon membrane binding. In light of these results, we propose a model of membrane interaction for the 21-mer peptide where it lies at the bilayer surface and perturbs the lipid head group conformation.

Biomedical potentials of crown ethers: prospective antitumor agents

Crown ethers are of enormous interest and importance in chemistry, biochemistry, materials science, catalysis, separation, transport and encapsulated processes, as well as in the design and synthesis of various synthetic systems with specific properties, diverse capabilities, and programmable functions. Classical crown ethers are macrocyclic polyethers that contain 3-20 oxygen atoms separated from each other by two or more carbon atoms. They are exceptionally versatile in selectively binding a range of metal ions and a variety of organic neutral and ionic species. Crown ethers are currently being studied and used in a variety of applications beyond their traditional place in chemistry. This review presents additional applications and the ever-increasing biomedical potentials of these intriguing compounds, with particular emphasis on the prospects of their relevance as anticancer agents. We believe that further research in this direction should be encouraged, as crown compounds could either induce toxicities that are different from those of conventional antitumor drugs, or complement drugs in current use, thereby providing a valuable adjunct to therapy.

Air-water interfacial behavior of amphiphilic peptide analogs of synthetic chloride ion transporters

A family of heptapeptide-based chloride transporters (called synthetic anion transporters, SATs) were designed to insert into phospholipid membrane bilayers and form pores. Many of these compounds have proved to be chloride selective transporters. The transporters were designed to incorporate hydrophilic heptapeptides that could serves as headgroups and hydrocarbon tails that could serve as hydrophobic membrane anchors. Insertion of the SAT molecules into a bilayer requires approach to and insertion at the aqueous-membrane surface. The studies reported here were conducted to model and understand this process by studying SAT behavior at the air-water interface. A Langmuir trough was used to obtain surface pressure-area isotherm data. These data for amphiphilic SATs were augmented by Brewster angle microscopy (BAM), molecular modeling, and calculations of the hydrophobicity parameter log P. The analyses showed that the heptapeptide (hydrophilic) module of the SAT molecule rested on the water surface while the dialkyl (hydrophobic) tails oriented themselves in the air, perpendicular to the water surface. Brewster angle microscopy visually confirmed a high order of molecular organization. Results from these studies are consistent with the previously proposed mechanism of SAT membrane insertion and pore formation.

Synthetic, biologically active amphiphilic peptides

Amphiphilic peptides typically consist of a peptide portion that may be 5-25 (or more) amino acids in length. The hydrophobic portion may be a single fatty acid residue, but can also be more elaborate. The main focus of this article lies on the family of synthetic anion binders (SATs) of the general structure (R(1))(2)N-COCH(2)OCH(2)CO-(Aaa)(n)-OR(3). The most-common R(1) group is the octadecyl (C(18)H(37)) group. The most studied peptide sequence in this family is (Gly)(3)-Pro-(Gly)(3), although different sequences (and longer and shorter peptides) have been prepared as well. The C-terminal ester residue providing the most effective anion release from liposomes is heptyl (C(7)H(15)), although many others have been examined. The compound (C(18)H(37))(2)N-COCH(2)OCH(2)CO-(Gly)(3)-Pro-(Gly)(3)-OBn (Bn=benzyl) was found to mediate Cl(-) transport in mouse epithelial cells.

Peptidoglycan lytic activity of thePseudomonas aeruginosaphage φKZ gp144 lytic transglycosylase

The gp144 endolysin gene from the Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage phiKZ was cloned and studies of gp144 expression into Escherichia coli showed host cell lysis. The gp144 protein was purified directly from the culture supernatant and from the bacterial cell pellet and showed in vitro antibacterial lytic activity against P. aeruginosa bacteria and degraded purified peptidoglycan of Gram-negative bacteria. MS analysis identified the gp144 peptidoglycan cleavage site and confirmed a lytic transglycosylase enzyme. Studies of gp144 expression in the presence of sodium azide (NaN(3)), an inhibitor of the protein export machinery, and into an E. coli MM52 secA(ts) mutant at permissive and restrictive temperatures showed that gp144 was secreted independently of the Sec system. The solution conformation of purified gp144 analyzed by circular dichroism spectroscopy was 61% in alpha-helical content, and showed a 72% decrease when interacting with dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG), one of the major components of bacterial membranes and less than 10% with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) found in eukaryotic membranes. Membrane vesicles of DMPG anionic lipids containing calcein indicated that gp144 caused a rapid release of fluorescent calcein when interacting with synthetic membranes. These results indicated that gp144 from phiKZ is a lytic transglycosylase capable of interacting with and disorganizing bacterial membranes and has potential as an antipseudomonal in phage therapy.

Biologically active, synthetic ion transporters

The compelling chemical goal of modeling protein channel behavior has led to synthetic compounds that are true ion channels. Although they largely lack the selectivity and sophistication of highly evolved proteins, they successfully perform a variety of biological functions. This tutorial review describes these novel structures and their activity in living systems. Different channel structures show antibacterial to anticancer activity when tested against a variety of cell types.