Endothelial nitric oxide synthase upregulation in the guinea pig organ of Corti after acute noise trauma

Absence of oncomodulin increases susceptibility to noise-induced outer hair cell death and alters mitochondrial morphology

Cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) play a fundamental role in the hearing sensitivity and frequency selectivity of mammalian hearing and are especially vulnerable to noise-induced damage. The OHCs depend on Ca2+ homeostasis, which is a balance between Ca2+ influx and extrusion, as well as Ca2+ buffering by proteins and organelles. Alterations in OHC Ca2+ homeostasis is not only an immediate response to noise, but also associated with impaired auditory function. However, there is little known about the contribution of Ca2+ buffering proteins and organelles to the vulnerability of OHCs to noise. In this study, we used a knockout (KO) mouse model where oncomodulin (Ocm), the major Ca2+ binding protein preferentially expressed in OHCs, is deleted. We show that Ocm KO mice were more susceptible to noise induced hearing loss compared to wildtype (WT) mice. Following noise exposure (106 dB SPL, 2 h), Ocm KO mice had higher threshold shifts and increased OHC loss and TUNEL staining, compared to age-matched WT mice. Mitochondrial morphology was significantly altered in Ocm KO OHCs compared to WT OHCs. Before noise exposure, Ocm KO OHCs showed decreased mitochondrial abundance, volume, and branching compared to WT OHCs, as measured by immunocytochemical staining of outer mitochondrial membrane protein, TOM20. Following noise exposure, mitochondrial proteins were barely visible in Ocm KO OHCs. Using a mammalian cell culture model of prolonged cytosolic Ca2+ overload, we show that OCM has protective effects against changes in mitochondrial morphology and apoptosis. These experiments suggest that disruption of Ca2+ buffering leads to an increase in noise vulnerability and mitochondrial-associated changes in OHCs.

Occupational and Environmental Noise Exposure and Extra-Auditory Effects on Humans: A Systematic Literature Review

Noise is a common harmful factor in our work and the environment. Most studies have investigated the auditory effects of noise exposure; however, few studies have focused on the extra-auditory effects of exposure to occupational or environmental noise. This study aimed to systematically review published studies on the extra-auditory effects of noise exposure. We reviewed literature from PubMed and Google Scholar databases up to July 2022, using the Patient, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome criteria and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to identify studies that reported extra-auditory effects of occupational or environmental noise exposure. Studies were evaluated utilizing validated reporting tools (CONSORT, STROBE) appropriate to study design. A total of 263 articles were identified, of which 36 were finally selected and reviewed. Upon conducting a review of the articles, exposure to noise can elicit a variety of extra-auditory effects on humans. These effects include circulatory effects linked to higher risk of cardiovascular disease and decreased endothelial function, nervous system effects correlated with sleep disturbance, cognitive impairment, and mental health problems, immunological and endocrinal effects connected to increased physiological stress response and metabolic disorders, oncological and respiratory effects associated with an elevated risk of acoustic neuroma and respiratory disorders, gastrointestinal effects linked to an increased risk of gastric or duodenal ulcer, and obstetric effects connected to the risk of preterm birth. Our review suggests that there are numerous extra-auditory effects of noise exposure on human, and further investigations are needed to fully understand these effects.

Redox Regulatory Changes of Circadian Rhythm by the Environmental Risk Factors Traffic Noise and Air Pollution

Significance: Risk factors in the environment such as air pollution and traffic noise contribute to the development of chronic noncommunicable diseases. Recent Advances: Epidemiological data suggest that air pollution and traffic noise are associated with a higher risk for cardiovascular, metabolic, and mental disease, including hypertension, heart failure, myocardial infarction, diabetes, arrhythmia, stroke, neurodegeneration, depression, and anxiety disorders, mainly by activation of stress hormone signaling, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Critical Issues: We here provide an in-depth review on the impact of the environmental risk factors air pollution and traffic noise exposure (components of the external exposome) on cardiovascular health, with special emphasis on the role of environmentally triggered oxidative stress and dysregulation of the circadian clock. Also, a general introduction on the contribution of circadian rhythms to cardiovascular health and disease as well as a detailed mechanistic discussion of redox regulatory pathways of the circadian clock system is provided. Future Directions: Finally, we discuss the potential of preventive strategies or "chrono" therapy for cardioprotection. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 679-703.

Nitrative Stress and Auditory Dysfunction

Nitrative stress is increasingly recognized as a critical mediator of apoptotic cell death in many pathological conditions. The accumulation of nitric oxide along with superoxide radicals leads to the generation of peroxynitrite that can eventually result in the nitration of susceptible proteins. Nitrotyrosine is widely used as a biomarker of nitrative stress and indicates oxidative damage to proteins. Ototoxic insults, such as exposure to noise and ototoxic drugs, enhance the generation of 3-nitrotyrosine in different cell types in the cochlea. Nitrated proteins can disrupt critical signaling pathways and eventually lead to apoptosis and loss of sensory receptor cells in the cochlea. Accumulating evidence shows that selective targeting of nitrative stress attenuates cellular damage. Anti-nitrative compounds, such as peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts and inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, prevent nitrative stress-mediated auditory damage. However, the role of nitrative stress in acquired hearing loss and its potential significance as a promising interventional target is yet to be fully characterized. This review provides an overview of nitrative stress mechanisms, the induction of nitrative stress in the auditory tissue after ototoxic insults, and the therapeutic value of targeting nitrative stress for mitigating auditory dysfunction.

Nitric oxide protects against cochlear hair cell damage and noise-induced hearing loss through glucose metabolic reprogramming

Nitric oxide (NO) is critically involved in the regulation of a wide variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes. However, the role of NO in the pathogenesis of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is complex and remains controversial. Here we reported that treatment of CBA/J mice with l-arginine, a physiological precursor of NO, significantly reduced noise-induced reactive oxygen species accumulation in outer hair cells (OHCs), attenuated noise-induced loss of OHCs and NIHL consequently. Conversely, pharmacological inhibition of endothelial nitric oxide synthase exacerbated noise-induced loss of OHCs and aggravated NIHL. In HEI-OC1 cells, NO also showed substantial protection against H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. Mechanistically, NO increased S-nitrosylation of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) and inhibited its activity, which thus diverted glucose metabolic flux from glycolysis into the pentose phosphate pathway to increase production of reducing equivalents (NADPH and GSH) and eventually prevented H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage. These findings open new avenues for protection of cochlear hair cells from oxidative stress and prevention of NIHL through NO modulation of PKM2 and glucose metabolism reprogramming.

Regulation of Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase in the Reticular Lamina of the Organ of Corti by a Nitric Oxide Donor

In the vertebrate cochlea, the reticular lamina seals the organ of Corti against the endolymph filled scala media. After noise exposure, fast alterations in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression level were identified in this cochlear structure. Minor amounts of nitric oxide (NO) produced by eNOS or applied by NO donors such as S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP) might protect this vulnerable part of the organ of Corti, on the line of gap junctions of supporting cells and cochlear microcirculation. In n=5 anesthetized guinea pigs, SNAP was intravenously applied in two concentrations. Six untreated animals served as controls. The cochleae were removed and prepared for immunoelectron microscopy using specific gold-labeled anti-eNOS antibodies. The density of the gold particles was quantified for seven cellular regions in the reticular lamina at the ultrastructural level. Following SNAP application, a significant increase in eNOS expression (+176%) was detected compared with controls (p=0.012). The increase occurred mainly in actin-rich cuticular structures and the prominent microtubules bundles. Correlation analysis revealed three clear and five moderate cellular associations for controls, whereas only one clear and one moderate after SNAP application. Thus, application of the NO donor SNAP resulted in an increase in eNOS expression in distinct regions of the reticular lamina.

Zika virus infection causes widespread damage to the inner ear

Zika virus (ZIKV) has been recently recognized as a causative agent of newborn microcephaly, as well as other neurological consequences. A less well recognized comorbidity of prenatal ZIKV infection is hearing loss, but cases of hearing impairment following adult ZIKV infection have also been recognized. Diminished hearing following prenatal ZIKV infection in a mouse model has been reported, but no cellular consequences were observed. We examined the effects of ZIKV infection on inner ear cellular integrity and expression levels of various proteins important for cochlear function in type I interferon receptor null (Ifnar1^-/-) mice following infection at 5-6 weeks of age. We show that ZIKV antigens are present in cells within the cochlear epithelium, lateral wall, spiral limbus and spiral ganglion. Here we show that ZIKV infection alters cochlear expression of genes that signal cell damage (S100B), transport fluids (AQP1), are gaseous transmitters (eNOs) and modulate immune response (F4/80). Morphological analyses shows that not only are cochlear structures compromised by ZIKV infection, but damage also occurs in vestibular end organs. ZIKV produces a graded distribution of cellular damage in the cochlea, with greatest damage in the apex similar to that reported for cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. The graded distribution of damage may indicate a differential susceptibility to ZIKV along the cochlear tonotopic axis. Collectively, these data are the first to show the molecular and morphological damage to the inner ear induced by ZIKV infection in adults and suggests multiple mechanisms contributing to the hearing loss reported in the human population.

Early Alterations of Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase Expression Patterns in the Guinea Pig Cochlea After Noise Exposure

Constitutively expressed endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is supposed to play a role in noise-induced nitric oxide (NO)-production. It is commonly known that intense noise exposure results in inducible NOS (iNOS) expression and increased NO-production, but knowledge about a contribution of the eNOS isoform is still lacking. Effects of noise exposure on eNOS immunolabeling were determined in male guinea pigs (n=24). For light microscopic analysis, 11 animals were exposed to 90 dB for 1 hr and 6 animals were used as controls. After exposure, eNOS immunostaining was performed on paraffin sections, and the staining intensities were quantified for 4 cochlear regions. For electron microscopic analysis, 2 animals were exposed for 2 hr to 90 dB and 5 animals were used as controls. The intensity of eNOS immunolabeling was found to be already comprehensively increased 1 hr after noise exposure to 90 dB. At the ultrastructural level, a clear increase in eNOS immunolabeling was found in microtubules-rich areas of cochlear cuticular structures. Hence, our findings indicate that the reticular lamina forming the endolymph-perilymph barrier at the apical side of the organ of Corti is involved in a fast intrinsic otoprotective mechanism of the cochlea.

Oxidative Stress in the Blood Labyrinthine Barrier in the Macula Utricle of Meniere's Disease Patients

The blood labyrinthine barrier (BLB) is critical in the maintenance of inner ear ionic and fluid homeostasis. Recent studies using imaging and histopathology demonstrate loss of integrity of the BLB in the affected inner ear of Meniere's disease (MD) patients. We hypothesized that oxidative stress is involved in the pathogenesis of BLB degeneration, and to date there are no studies of oxidative stress proteins in the human BLB. We investigated the ultrastructural and immunohistochemical changes of the BLB in the vestibular endorgan, the macula utricle, from patients with MD (n = 10), acoustic neuroma (AN) (n = 6) and normative autopsy specimens (n = 3) with no inner ear disease. Each subject had a well-documented clinical history and audiovestibular testing. Utricular maculae were studied using light and transmission electron microscopy and double labeling immunofluorescence. Vascular endothelial cells (VECs) were identified using isolectin B4 (IB4) and glucose-transporter-1 (GLUT-1). Pericytes were identified using alpha smooth muscle actin (αSMA) and phalloidin. IB4 staining of VECS was consistently seen in both AN and normative. In contrast, IB4 was nearly undetectable in all MD specimens, consistent with the significant VEC damage confirmed on transmission electron microscopy. GLUT-1 was present in MD, AN, and normative. αSMA and phalloidin were expressed consistently in the BLB pericytes in normative, AN specimen, and Meniere's specimens. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and nitrotyrosine were used as markers of oxidative stress. The VECs of the BLB in Meniere's had significantly higher levels of expression of iNOS and nitrotyrosine compared with normative and AN specimen. eNOS-IF staining showed similar patterns in normative and Meniere's specimens. Microarray-based gene expression profiling confirmed upregulation of iNOS mRNA from the macula utricle of Meniere's patients compared with AN. Nitrotyrosine, a marker recognized as a hallmark of inflammation, especially when seen in association with an upregulation of iNOS, was detected in the epithelial and stromal cells in addition to VECs in MD. Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural degenerative changes of the VEC suggest that these cells are the primary targets of oxidative stress, and pericyte pathology including degeneration and migration, likely also plays a role in the loss of integrity of the BLB and triggering of inflammatory pathways in MD. These studies advance our scientific understanding of oxidative stress in the human inner ear BLB and otopathology.

Genetics of guanylyl cyclase pathways in the cochlea and their influence on hearing

Although hearing loss is the most common sensory deficit in Western societies, there are no successful pharmacological treatments for this disorder. Recent experiments have demonstrated that manipulation of intracellular cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) concentrations can have both beneficial and harmful effects on hearing. In this review, we will examine the role of cGMP as a key second messenger involved in many aspects of cochlear function and discuss the known functions of downstream effectors of cGMP in sound processing. The nitric oxide-stimulated soluble guanylyl cyclase system (sGC) and the two natriuretic peptide-stimulated particulate GCs (pGCs) will be more extensively covered because they have been studied most thoroughly. The cochlear GC systems are attractive targets for medical interventions that improve hearing while simultaneously representing an under investigated source of sensorineural hearing loss.

The endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) polymorphism in otitis media with effusion (OME)

OBJECTIVES

Otitis media with effusion (OME) is the most common disease after viral infections of upper respiratory tract (URTI) in children. Studies indicate the important role of nitric oxide (NO) in the etiology of hearing loss. However, there is no study that focuses on the role of nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) polymorphisms in the cases with OME. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the eNOS polymorphisms in the pediatric patients with OME.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighty-nine patients who are diagnosed with otitis media with effusion and 85 healthy subjects who are compatible in terms of age and gender were included in the study. All patients in the study were subjected to complete ear, nose, throat (ENT) and audiological examinations. DNA analysis was performed with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique from the blood samples. The PCR product was cut by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) with BanII enzyme and checked by agarose gel electrophoresis.

RESULTS

As a result of genetic analysis, there is no significant difference between patients and the controls in terms of eNOS Glu298Asp polymorphism (G/G, G/T, T/T). When these groups were compared in terms of allele distributions, a significant relationship was found between the patients and the controls (P=0.037).

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, G allele was identified as predisposing to the development of OME and this is the first report indicates the correlation between the eNOS G894T polymorphism and OME in Turkey.

Inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase ameliorates radiation-induced ototoxicity in zebrafish and cochlea-derived cell lines

Radiation is a widely used treatment for head and neck cancers, and one of its most severe side effects is ototoxicity. Radiation-induced ototoxicity has been demonstrated to be linked to the increased production of ROS and MAPK. We intended to investigate the effect of p38 inhibition on radiation-induced ototoxicity in cochlea-derived HEI-OC1 cells and in a zebrafish model. The otoprotective effect of p38 inhibition against radiation was tested in vitro in the organ of Corti-derived cell line, HEI-OC1, and in vivo in a zebrafish model. Radiation-induced apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and an increase of intracellular NO generation were demonstrated in HEI-OC1 cells. The p38-specific inhibitor, SB203580, ameliorated radiation-induced apoptosis and mitochondrial injury in HEI-OC1 cells. p38 inhibition reduced radiation-induced activation of JNK, p38, cytochrome c, and cleavage of caspase-3 and PARP in HEI-OC1 cells. Scanning electron micrography showed that SB203580 prevented radiation-induced destruction of kinocilium and stereocilia in zebrafish neuromasts. The results of this study suggest that p38 plays an important role in mediating radiation-induced ototoxicity and inhibition of p38 could be a plausible option for preventing radiation ototoxicity.

Effect of nighttime aircraft noise exposure on endothelial function and stress hormone release in healthy adults

AIMS

Aircraft noise disturbs sleep, and long-term exposure has been shown to be associated with increases in the prevalence of hypertension and an overall increased risk for myocardial infarction. The exact mechanisms responsible for these cardiovascular effects remain unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We performed a blinded field study in 75 healthy volunteers (mean age 26 years), who were exposed at home, in random order, to one control pattern (no noise) and two different noise scenarios [30 or 60 aircraft noise events per night with an average maximum sound pressure level (SPL) of 60 dB(A)] for one night each. We performed polygraphy during each study night. Noise caused a worsening in sleep quality (P < 0.0001). Noise60, corresponding to equivalent continuous SPLs of 46.3 dB (Leq) and representing environmental noise levels associated with increased cardiovascular events, caused a blunting in FMD (P = 0.016). As well, although a direct comparison among the FMD values in the noise groups (control: 10.4 ± 3.8%; Noise30: 9.7 ± 4.1%; Noise60: 9.5 ± 4.3%, P = 0.052) did not reach significance, a monotone dose-dependent effect of noise level on FMD was shown (P = 0.020). Finally, there was a priming effect of noise, i.e. the blunting in FMD was particularly evident when subjects were exposed first to 30 and then to 60 noise events (P = 0.006). Noise-induced endothelial dysfunction (ED) was reversed by the administration of Vitamin C (P = 0.0171). Morning adrenaline concentration increased from 28.3 ± 10.9 to 33.2 ± 16.6 and 34.1 ± 19.3 ng/L (P = 0.0099). Pulse transit time, reflecting arterial stiffness, was also shorter after exposure to noise (P = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

In healthy adults, acute nighttime aircraft noise exposure dose-dependently impairs endothelial function and stimulates adrenaline release. Noise-induced ED may be in part due to increased production in reactive oxygen species and may thus be one mechanism contributing to the observed association of chronic noise exposure with cardiovascular disease.

(-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate protects against NO-induced ototoxicity through the regulation of caspase- 1, caspase-3, and NF-κB activation

Excessive nitric oxide (NO) production is toxic to the cochlea and induces hearing loss. However, the mechanism through which NO induces ototoxicity has not been completely understood. The aim of this study was to gain further insight into the mechanism mediating NO-induced toxicity in auditory HEI-OC1 cells and in ex vivo analysis. We also elucidated whether and how epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the main component of green tea polyphenols, regulates NO-induced auditory cell damage. To investigate NO-mediated ototoxicity, S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) was used as an NO donor. SNAP was cytotoxic, generating reactive oxygen species, releasing cytochrome c, and activating caspase-3 in auditory cells. NO-induced ototoxicity also mediated the nuclear factor (NF)-κB/caspase-1 pathway. Furthermore, SNAP destroyed the orderly arrangement of the 3 outer rows of hair cells in the basal, middle, and apical turns of the organ of Corti from the cochlea of Sprague-Dawley rats at postnatal day 2. However, EGCG counteracted this ototoxicity by suppressing the activation of caspase-3/NF-κB and preventing the destruction of hair cell arrays in the organ of Corti. These findings may lead to the development of a model for pharmacological mechanism of EGCG and potential therapies against ototoxicity.

Nitric oxide mediates TNF-α-induced apoptosis in the auditory cell line

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is released in a variety of pathological states in the inner ear. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) can be induced by cytokines and other inflammatory factors, and is generally thought to be associated with inflammation and other pathological processes in the cochlea. The purpose of the present study was to reveal that TNF-α could induce apoptosis in the auditory cell line and to investigate the role of nitric oxide (NO) in TNF-α-induced auditory cell death.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental study.

METHODS

UB-OC1 cells and zebrafish were exposed to TNF-α. Flow cytometry, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, assay of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and electron microscopy were used to show that TNF-α could induce apoptosis. Western blot was used to measure iNOS expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway.

RESULTS

Flow cytometric analysis, TUNEL assay, MMP, and electron microscopy all demonstrated that TNF-α could induce apoptosis in UB-OC1 cells. TNF-α significantly increased NO generation and iNOS expression. Pretreatment with iNOS blocker NG-methyl-L-arginine (NMA) attenuated TNF-α-induced cell death and caspase-3 activation. Also, TNF-α treatment increased p-p38 and p-ERK, and pretreatment of NMA reduced this increased expression of p-p38 and p-ERK.

CONCLUSIONS

TNF-α can induce apoptosis in the auditory cell line, and NO production in response to TNF-α is essential for apoptosis.

Nitric oxide--a versatile key player in cochlear function and hearing disorders

Nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule which can generally be formed by three nitric oxide synthases (NOS). Two of them, the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and the neural nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), are calcium/calmodulin-dependent and constitutively expressed in many cell types. Both isoforms are found in the vertebrate cochlea. The inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is independent of calcium and normally not detectable in the un-stimulated cochlea. In the inner ear, as in other tissues, NO was identified as a multitask molecule involved in various processes such as neurotransmission and neuromodulation. In addition, increasing evidence demonstrates that the NO-dependent processes of cell protection or, alternatively, cell destruction seem to depend, among other things, on changes in the local cochlear NO-concentration. These alterations can occur at the cellular level or within a distinct cell population both leading to an NO-imbalance within the hearing organ. This dysfunction can result in hearing loss or even in deafness. In cases of cochlear malfunction, regulatory systems such as the gap junction system, the blood vessels or the synaptic region might be affected temporarily or permanently by an altered NO-level. This review discusses potential cellular mechanisms how NO might contribute to different forms of hearing disorders. Approaches of NO-reduction are evaluated and the transfer of results obtained from experimental animal models to human medication is discussed.

Bone marrow cell recruitment mediated by inducible nitric oxide synthase/stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha signaling repairs the acoustically damaged cochlear blood-labyrinth barrier

Using a mouse model with noise-induced cochlear blood-labyrinth-barrier (CBLB) injury, we examined the effects of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) on the recruitment of bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) to the CBLB after acoustic injury. Lethally irradiated C57BL/6J and B6.129P2-Nos2(tm1Lau)/J mice were transplanted with GFP(+)-BMDCs from C57Bl/6-Tg (UBC GFP) mice. Four weeks after transplantation, we assessed the population of GFP(+)-BMDCs in the CBLB. Only small numbers of GFP(+)-BMDCs were found to infiltrate the area of the CBLB in the control recipient mice. However, robust GFP(+)-BMDC migration occurred in the area of the CBLB within the injured cochlea during the first week following acoustic trauma, and further BMDC accumulation was seen by 2 weeks posttrauma. After 4 weeks, the BMDCs were integrated into vessels. Local iNOS from perivascular resident macrophages was found to be important for BMDC infiltration, since mice deficient in iNOS (Inos(-/-)) and mice with iNOS that had been inhibited by 1400W displayed reduced BMDC infiltration. Stromal cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α) and its chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) were required for the iNOS-triggered recruitment. BMDC recruitment was significantly reduced by the inhibition of SDF-1α activity. Inhibition of the iNOS/SDF-1α signaling pathway reduced vascular repair as observed by reduced vascular density. Our study revealed an intrinsic signaling pathway of iNOS that mediates SDF-1α to promote GFP(+)-BMDC infiltration/targeting in cochlear vascular repair.

Multimodality imaging of nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthases

Nitric oxide (NO) and NO synthases (NOSs) are crucial factors in many pathophysiological processes such as inflammation, vascular/neurological function, and many types of cancer. Noninvasive imaging of NO or NOS can provide new insights in understanding these diseases and facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies. In this review, we will summarize the current state-of-the-art multimodality imaging in detecting NO and NOSs, including optical (fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and bioluminescence), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), magnetic resonance (MR), and positron emission tomography (PET). With continued effort over the last several years, these noninvasive imaging techniques can now reveal the biodistribution of NO or NOS in living subjects with high fidelity which will greatly facilitate scientists/clinicians in the development of new drugs and/or patient management. Lastly, we will also discuss future directions/applications of NO/NOS imaging. Successful development of novel NO/NOS imaging agents with optimal in vivo stability and desirable pharmacokinetics for clinical translation will enable the maximum benefit in patient management.

[Protection of the cochlea by ascorbic acid in noise trauma]

BACKGROUND

The protective effect of ascorbic acid against noise-induced hearing loss and increased nitric oxide (NO) formation after noise exposure have already been demonstrated in animal models. However, the influence of ascorbic acid on noise-induced NO production within the cochlea is still unclear.

METHODS

Guinea pigs (n=48) were fed for 7 days with low [25 mg/kg bodyweight (bw)/day] and high (525 mg/kg bw/day) doses of ascorbic acid. Then half of the animals were exposed to noise (90 dB for 1 h). The hearing levels were recorded beforehand, on the 3rd and 7th days after feeding, and directly after noise exposure. Finally, the organ of Corti and the lateral wall were removed from the inner ear and incubated separately for 6 h in culture medium, and the nitrite content was determined in the supernatant.

RESULTS

Compared with low-dose feeding, feeding of high doses of ascorbic acid resulted in a reduction of hearing impairment of about 8 dB after noise exposure. A correlation between hearing improvement and decreased NO production was detectable for both cochlea regions but was more pronounced in the lateral wall.

CONCLUSION

A high dose of ascorbic acid lowers NO production in the inner ear, reduces hearing loss, and protects the cochlea from nitroactive stress.

Visualization and contractile activity of cochlear pericytes in the capillaries of the spiral ligament

Pericytes, mural cells located on microvessels, are considered to play an important role in the formation of the vasculature and the regulation of local blood flow in some organs. Little is known about the physiology of cochlear pericytes. In order to investigate the function of cochlear pericytes, we developed a method to visualize cochlear pericytes using diaminofluorescein-2 diacetate (DAF-2DA) and intravital fluorescence microscopy. This method can permit the study of the effect of vasoactive agents on pericytes under the in vivo and normal physiological condition. The specificity of the labeling method was verified by the immunofluorescence labeling of pericyte maker proteins such as desmin, neural proteoglycan (NG2), and thymocyte differentiation antigen 1 (Thy-1). Superfused K(+) and Ca(2+) to the cochlear lateral wall resulted in localized constriction of capillaries at pericyte locations both in vivo and in vitro, while there was no obvious change in cochlear capillary diameters with application of the adrenergic neurotransmitter noradrenaline. The method could be an effective way to visualize cochlear pericytes and microvessels and study lateral wall vascular physiology. Moreover, we demonstrate for the first time that cochlear pericytes have contractility, which may be important for regulation of cochlear blood flow.

Expression of VEGF, iNOS, and eNOS is increased in cochlea of diabetic rat

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that diabetes causes up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which may be involved in the pathogenesis of cochlea functional loss.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the underlying mechanisms that may be responsible for diabetic microangiopathy in the inner ear, we studied the expression of VEGF, iNOS, and eNOS in the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rat cochlea.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The immunofluorescence studies were performed by using FITC-labelled specific antibodies to VEGF, iNOS, and eNOS on paraffin sections of the cochlea. The expression levels of VEGF, iNOS, and eNOS were quantified by means of Western blot analysis of cochlea protein extracts. Evans blue (EB) was used to investigate blood-labyrinth barrier (BLB) permeability in the cochlea.

RESULTS

Increased cochlear expression of VEGF, iNOS, and eNOS was detected in the diabetic rat. Furthermore, increased permeability of BLB was evidenced by increased cochlear EB extravasation in the diabetic rat.

Nitric oxide and mitochondrial status in noise-induced hearing loss

The study investigated the distribution of nitric oxide (NO) within isolated outer hair cells (OHCs) from the cochlea, its relationship to mitochondria and its modulation of mitochondrial function. Using two fluorescent dyes--4,5-diamino-fluorescein diacetate (DAF-2DA), which detects NO, and tetramethyl rhodamine methyl ester (TMRM+), a mitochondrial membrane potential dye--it was found that a relatively greater amount of the DAF fluorescence in OHCs co-localized with mitochondria in comparison to DAF fluorescence in the cytosole. This study also observed reduced mitochondrial membrane potential of OHCs and increased DAF fluorescence following exposure of the cells to noise (120 dB SPL for 4 h) and to an exogenous NO donor, NOC-7 (>350 mm). Antibody label for nitrotyrosine was also increased, indicating NO-related formation of peroxynitrite in both mitochondria and the cytosol. The results suggest that NO may play an important physiological role in regulating OHC energy status and act as a potential agent in OHC pathology.

Mechanisms of noise-induced hearing loss indicate multiple methods of prevention

Recent research has shown the essential role of reduced blood flow and free radical formation in the cochlea in noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). The amount, distribution, and time course of free radical formation have been defined, including a clinically significant late formation 7-10 days following noise exposure, and one mechanism underlying noise-induced reduction in cochlear blood flow has finally been identified. These new insights have led to the formulation of new hypotheses regarding the molecular mechanisms of NIHL; and, from these, we have identified interventions that prevent NIHL, even with treatment onset delayed up to 3 days post-noise. It is essential to now assess the additive effects of agents intervening at different points in the cell death pathway to optimize treatment efficacy. Finding safe and effective interventions that attenuate NIHL will provide a compelling scientific rationale to justify human trials to eliminate this single major cause of acquired hearing loss.

Fast alterations of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and that of its receptors (Flt-1, Flk-1 and Neuropilin) in the cochlea of guinea pigs after moderate noise exposure

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a vascular permeability regulating, proangiogenic factor with neuroprotective properties. Its expression in the inner ear has been demonstrated, but little is known concerning its subcellular distribution or potential involvement in sound perception and adaptation to noise. Therefore, we determined the expression patterns and levels of VEGF and the three VEGF-receptors FLK, FLT and Neuropilin in the cochlea of guinea pigs, and examined the alterations occurring after noise exposure. After 70 dB exposure, VEGF expression was found to be reduced in all cell types of the organ of Corti, in the stria vascularis and in spiral ganglion cells. Additional down-regulation was observed in the spiral ligament and in interdental cells after 90 dB. In contrast, VEGF showed an in tendency increased level after both intensities in nerve fibers of the osseous spiral lamina. Expression of FLT was affected similarly, showing down-regulation after 70 and 90 dB on spiral ganglion cells, the nerve fibers of the osseous spiral lamina and on Deiters cells. Additionally, down-regulation was observed in the remaining cell types of the organ of Corti, the stria vascularis, the spiral ligament and the interdental cells. The Neuropilin levels remained unchanged by our experiments; apart from the blood vessel endothelium, there was no detectable expression in any of the cell types investigated. The FLK expression pattern was likewise unaffected by exposure to 70 or 90 dB, with the notable exception of an increased level occurring in Schwann cells after 90 dB. We postulate that modulation of VEGF and its receptors may be part of a neuroprotective mechanism in response to noise.