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Lalonde R, Strazielle C. Neurochemical anatomy of dorsal and tonic immobility responses. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2022; 213:173334. [PMID: 35026175 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The dorsal immobility response (DIR) and the tonic immobility response (TIR) are cutaneo-motor reflexes typically triggered when a prey is seized. The neurochemical basis of the DIR appears to pass through the basal ganglia via dopaminergic fibers, while the neurochemical basis of the TIR appears to include a circuit comprising the amygdala, the periaqueductal gray (PAG), the dorsal raphe, and the nucleus magnus raphe (NMR) via glutamatergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, GABAergic, and opioid fibers. For the DIR, the basal ganglia also seem to be involved in regard to estradiol, while for the TIR, the HPA axis appears involved at the level of the amygdala and the oral pontine reticular nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Lalonde
- Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, University of Lorraine, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France; EA7475, Department of Psychology, University of Rouen-Normandie, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Catherine Strazielle
- Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, University of Lorraine, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France; CHRU Nancy, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France.
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Carli G, Farabollini F. Neuroendocrine correlates of stress and tonic immobility. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2022; 271:229-251. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Peinkhofer C, Martial C, Cassol H, Laureys S, Kondziella D. The evolutionary origin of near-death experiences: a systematic investigation. Brain Commun 2021; 3:fcab132. [PMID: 34240053 PMCID: PMC8260963 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcab132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Near-death experiences are known from all parts of the world, various times and
numerous cultural backgrounds. This universality suggests that near-death
experiences may have a biological origin and purpose. Adhering to a
preregistered protocol, we investigate the hypothesis that thanatosis, aka
death-feigning, a last-resort defense mechanism in animals, is the evolutionary
origin of near-death experiences. We first show that thanatosis is a highly
preserved survival strategy occurring at all major nodes in a cladogram ranging
from insects to humans. We then show that humans under attack by animal, human
and ‘modern’ predators can experience both thanatosis and
near-death experiences, and we further show that the phenomenology and the
effects of the two overlap. In summary, we build a line of evidence suggesting
that thanatosis is the evolutionary foundation of near-death experiences and
that their shared biological purpose is the benefit of survival. We propose that
the acquisition of language enabled humans to transform these events from
relatively stereotyped death-feigning under predatory attacks into the rich
perceptions that form near-death experiences and extend to non-predatory
situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costanza Peinkhofer
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Charlotte Martial
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Helena Cassol
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Steven Laureys
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Daniel Kondziella
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
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Kondziella D. The Neurology of Death and the Dying Brain: A Pictorial Essay. Front Neurol 2020; 11:736. [PMID: 32793105 PMCID: PMC7385288 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
As neurologists earn their living with the preservation and restoration of brain function, they are also well-positioned to address the science behind the transition from life to death. This essay in pictures highlights areas of neurological expertise needed for brain death determination; shows pitfalls to avoid during the clinical examination and interpretation of confirmatory laboratory tests in brain death protocols; illustrates the great variability of brain death legislations around the world; discusses arguments for the implementation of donation after circulatory death (DCD); points to unresolved questions related to DCD and the time between cardiac standstill and organ procurement (“hands-off period”); provides an overview of the epidemiology and semiology of near-death experiences, including their importance for religion, literature, and the visual arts; suggests biological mechanisms for near-death experiences such as dysfunction of temporoparietal cortex, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism, migraine aura, and rapid eye movement sleep; hypothesizes that thanatosis (aka. death-feigning, a common behavioral trait in the animal kingdom) represents the evolutionary origin of near-death experiences; and speculates about the future implications of recent attempts of brain resuscitation in an animal model. The aim is to provide the reader with a thorough understanding that the boundaries within the neurology of death and the dying brain are being pushed just like everywhere else in the clinical neurosciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kondziella
- Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Pain and stress: functional evidence that supra-spinal mechanisms involved in pain-induced analgesia mediate stress-induced analgesia. Behav Pharmacol 2020; 31:159-167. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chaby LE. Why are there lasting effects from exposure to stress during development? An analysis of current models of early stress. Physiol Behav 2016; 164:164-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Liu J, Duan Y, Hu Y, Sun L, Wang S, Fu W, Ni Y, Zhao R. Exogenous administration of chronic corticosterone affects hepatic cholesterol metabolism in broiler chickens showing long or short tonic immobility. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2016; 191:53-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Effects of acute restraint stress, prolonged captivity stress and transdermal corticosterone application on immunocompetence and plasma levels of corticosterone on the cururu Toad (Rhinella icterica). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121005. [PMID: 25831055 PMCID: PMC4382218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoid steroids modulate immunocompetence in complex ways with both immunoenhancing and immunosuppressive effects in vertebrates exposed to different stressors. Such bimodal effects have been associated with variation in duration and intensity of the stress response. Given that natural populations have been exposed to a multitude of stressors, a better understanding of the functional association between duration and intensity of the stress response, the resulting changes in glucocorticoid plasma levels and their impact on different aspects of immunocompetence emerges as a cornerstone for vertebrate conservation strategies. We investigated the effects of a restraint challenge (with and without movement restriction), long-term captivity, and transdermal corticosterone application on plasma levels of corticosterone (hereinafter referred to as CORT) and different parameters of innate immunocompetence in the male cururu toads (Rhinella icterica). We show that for R. icterica restraint for 24h proved to be a stressful condition, increasing CORT by 3-fold without consistent immunological changes. However, the application of a more intense stressor (restraint with movement restriction), for the same period, potentiated this response resulting in a 9-fold increase in CORT, associated with increase Neutrophil/Lymphocyte ratio (N:L) and a lower bacterial killing ability (BKA). Transdermal application of corticosterone efficiently mimics repeated acute stress response events, without changing the immune parameters even after 13 days of treatment. Interestingly, long-term captivity did not mitigate the stress response, since the toads maintained 3-fold increased CORT even after 3 months under these conditions. Moreover, long-term captivity in the same condition increased total leukocyte count (TLC) and generated an even greater decrease in BKA, suggesting that consequences of the stress response can be aggravated by time in captivity.
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Wang S, Ni Y, Guo F, Sun Z, Ahmed A, Zhao R. Differential expression of hypothalamic fear- and stress-related genes in broiler chickens showing short or long tonic immobility. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2014; 47:65-72. [PMID: 24360202 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The serotonin system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis play important roles in modulating fear and stress-coping characteristics. Tonic immobility (TI) is a fear-related phenotype, and previously we have shown that broiler chickens showing short TI (STI) duration experience better growth performance and higher adaptability to stress. Here, we sought to further elucidate the central mechanisms underlying the phenotypic differences between chickens showing STI and long TI duration, by comparing the hypothalamic expression of genes in the serotonergic system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis under basal and corticosterone-exposed situations. The STI broilers had significantly lower (P < 0.01) hypothalamic expression of serotonin reuptake transporter and serotonin receptor 1A. Moreover, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 was expressed significantly lower in STI chickens at the level of both mRNA (P < 0.01) and protein (P < 0.05). Hypothalamic expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNA tended to be higher (P < 0.059) in long TI chickens, but the protein content was approximately 2 times higher (P < 0.01) in STI chickens. The uncoupled expression of GR mRNA and protein was associated with significantly lower (P < 0.05) expression of gga-miR-181a, gga-miR-211, and gga-miR-22, which are predicted to target GR, in STI chickens. Corticosterone administration reduced the mRNA expression of postsynaptic serotonin receptors, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1B (P = 0.059) and 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 7 (P < 0.05), yet significantly increased the protein content of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (P < 0.05). These results suggest that broilers of different TI phenotypes have a distinct pattern of hypothalamic expression of fear- and stress-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; College of Animal Science, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, 453001, China
| | - Y Ni
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - F Guo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Z Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - A Ahmed
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - R Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
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Hegab IM, Shang G, Ye M, Jin Y, Wang A, Yin B, Yang S, Wei W. Defensive responses of Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) to chronic predatory stress. Physiol Behav 2014; 126:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Duan Y, Fu W, Wang S, Ni Y, Zhao R. Effects of tonic immobility (TI) and corticosterone (CORT) on energy status and protein metabolism in pectoralis major muscle of broiler chickens. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2013; 169:90-5. [PMID: 24389091 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI), which can be divided into short (STI) or long (LTI) duration, is a character related to fear. Our previous study has demonstrated LTI phenotype and chronic corticosterone (CORT) administration retarded growth of breast muscle in broiler chickens. In order to investigate the mechanism behind the negative effects of LTI and CORT on growth, the level of mRNA transcription of several key genes linked to energy and protein metabolism was measured in muscle. LTI broilers showed lower levels of ATP, energy charge (EC) (p<0.01), and lower muscle glycogen content (p<0.05) but higher level of ADP (p = 0.08) than STI birds. CORT treatment elevated EC level (p<0.05) and reduced liver glycogen content (p<0.05). Real-time PCR results showed that STI chickens had higher mRNA expression of PPAR α (p = 0.06) and AMPK α (p = 0.09) than LTI. CORT significantly down-regulated α-enolase mRNA expression in breast muscle compared to control (p<0.05). Neither TI nor CORT altered gene expression in Akt/mTOR/p70s6k cascade pathway in muscle (p > 0.05). However, western blot results showed that LTI chickens exhibited higher protein content of total Akt (p = 0.05) and phosphorylated Akt (p = 0.06) than STI. CORT treatment decreased the total protein content of Akt (p = 0.09) and p70s6k (p = 0.08). These results suggest that the retardation of muscle growth by LTI and chronic CORT administration parallels a strong alternation in energy status but slight changes of Akt/mTOR/p70s6k cascade, indicating that a decrease in muscle growth induced by LTI and CORT might not be mediated through mTOR-dependent signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujing Duan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Wenyan Fu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Song Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yingdong Ni
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Ruqian Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Cortisol plays a multifaceted role in major depression disorder (MDD). Diurnal rhythms are disturbed, there is increased resistance to the feedback action of glucocorticoids, excess cortisol may induce MDD, basal levels may be higher and the post-awakening cortisol surge accentuated in those at risk for MDD. Does this suggest new avenues for studying MDD or its clinical management? METHOD The relevant literature was reviewed. RESULTS Cortisol contributes to genetic variants for the risk for MDD and the way that environmental events amplify risk. The corticoids' influence begins prenatally, but continues into adulthood. The impact of cortisol at each phase depends not only on its interaction with other factors, such as psychological traits and genetic variants, but also on events that have, or have not, occurred previously. CONCLUSIONS This review suggests that the time is now right for serious consideration of the role of cortisol in a clinical context. Estimates of cortisol levels and the shape of the diurnal rhythm might well guide the understanding of subtypes of MDD and yield additional indicators for optimal treatment. Patients with disturbed cortisol rhythms might benefit from restitution of those rhythms; they may be distinct from those with more generally elevated levels, who might benefit from cortisol blockade. Higher levels of cortisol are a risk for subsequent depression. Should manipulation of cortisol or its receptors be considered as a preventive measure for some of those at very high risk of future MDD, or to reduce other cortisol-related consequences such as long-term cognitive decline?
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Affiliation(s)
- J Herbert
- Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, UK.
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Narayan EJ. Non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology in amphibian conservation physiology. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 1:cot011. [PMID: 27293595 PMCID: PMC4806611 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cot011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Non-invasive endocrinology utilizes non-invasive biological samples (such as faeces, urine, hair, aquatic media, and saliva) for the quantification of hormones in wildlife. Urinary-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and radio-immunoassay have enabled the rapid quantification of reproductive and stress hormones in amphibians (Anura: Amphibia). With minimal disturbance, these methods can be used to assess the ovarian and testicular endocrine functions as well as physiological stress in captive and free-living populations. Non-invasive endocrine monitoring has therefore greatly advanced our knowledge of the functioning of the stress endocrine system (the hypothalamo-pituitary-interrenal axis) and the reproductive endocrine system (the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis) in the amphibian physiological stress response, reproductive ecology, health and welfare, and survival. Biological (physiological) validation is necessary for obtaining the excretory lag time of hormone metabolites. Urinary-based EIA for the major reproductive hormones, estradiol and progesterone in females and testosterone in males, can be used to track the reproductive hormone profiles in relationship to reproductive behaviour and environmental data in free-living anurans. Urinary-based corticosterone metabolite EIA can be used to assess the sublethal impacts of biological stressors (such as invasive species and pathogenic diseases) as well as anthropogenic induced environmental stressors (e.g. extreme temperatures) on free-living populations. Non-invasive endocrine methods can also assist in the diagnosis of success or failure of captive breeding programmes by measuring the longitudinal patterns of changes in reproductive hormones and corticosterone within captive anurans and comparing the endocrine profiles with health records and reproductive behaviour. This review paper focuses on the reproductive and the stress endocrinology of anurans and demonstrates the uses of non-invasive endocrinology for advancing amphibian conservation physiology. It also provides key technical considerations for future research that will increase the accuracy and reliability of the data and the value of non-invasive endocrinology within the conceptual framework of conservation physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. J. Narayan
- Corresponding author: Environmental Futures Centre, School of Environment, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia. Tel: +61 (0)4 0169 7287. ;
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Sandoval-Herrera V, Trujillo-Ferrara JG, Miranda-Páez A, De La Cruz F, Zamudio SR. Corticosterone microinjected into nucleus pontis oralis increases tonic immobility in rats. Horm Behav 2011; 60:448-56. [PMID: 21820440 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI) is also known as "immobility response", "immobility reflex", "animal hypnosis", etc. It is an innate antipredatory behavior characterized by an absence of movement, varying degrees of muscular activity, and a relative unresponsiveness to external stimuli. Experimentally, TI is commonly produced by manually forcing an animal into an inverted position and restraining it in that position until the animal becomes immobile. Part of the neural mechanism(s) of TI involves the medullo-pontine reticular formation, with influence from other components of the brain, notably the limbic system. It has been observed that TI is more prolonged in stressed animals, and systemic injection of corticosterone (CORT) also potentiates this behavior. At present, the anatomical brain regions involved in the CORT modulation of TI are unknown. Thus, our study was made to determine if some pontine areas could be targets for the modulation of TI by CORT. A unilateral nucleus pontis oralis (PnO) microinjection of 1 μL of CORT (0.05 μg/1 μL) in rats resulted in clear behavioral responses. The animals had an increased duration of TI caused by clamping the neck (in this induction, besides of body inversion and restraint, there is also clamping the neck), with an enhancement in open-field motor activity, which were prevented by pretreatment injection into PnO with 1 μL of the mineralocorticoid-receptor antagonist spironolactone (0.5 μg/1 μL) or 1 μL of the glucocorticoid-receptor antagonist mifepristone (0.5 μg/1 μL). In contrast, these behavioral changes were not seen when CORT (0.05 μg/1 μL) was microinjected into medial lemniscus area or paramedian raphe. Our data support the idea that, in stressful situations, glucocorticoids released from adrenals of the prey reach the PnO to produce a hyper arousal state, which in turn can prolong the duration of TI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Sandoval-Herrera
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Plan de Ayala, 11340, México D. F., Mexico.
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Chen Q, Zhang Z, Zhang R, Niu Y, Bian X, Zhang Q. Tributyltin chloride-induced immunotoxicity and thymocyte apoptosis are related to abnormal Fas expression. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2011; 214:145-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ricciardella LF, Bliley JM, Feth CC, Woodley SK. Acute stressors increase plasma corticosterone and decrease locomotor activity in a terrestrial salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus). Physiol Behav 2010; 101:81-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Revised: 03/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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