Advances in lipid-based carriers for cancer therapeutics: Liposomes, exosomes and hybrid exosomes

Liposome Nanocarriers Based on γ Oryzanol: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vivo Assessment of Toxicity and Antioxidant Activity

The present study aimed to develop and characterize liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol and evaluate their potential in vitro and in vivo toxicity and antioxidant effects. The liposomes were physicochemically characterized using various techniques, including dynamic light scattering (DLS) for size and polydispersity index (PDI) measurements and ζ-potential analysis. The in vitro toxicity assessments were performed using hemolysis and MTT assays on the HS5 cell line. In vivo, acute oral toxicity was evaluated by using LD50 assays in mice. Additionally, antioxidant activity was assessed through biochemical analysis of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and liver tissue catalase, malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) levels. The results revealed that the liposomes exhibited a uniform and spherical morphology with suitable physicochemical properties for drug delivery applications. The in vitro cytotoxicity and hemolysis assays and the in vivo LD50 experiment indicated the potential safety of γ oryzanol liposomes, especially at lower concentrations. In addition, the assessment of liver enzymes, i.e., ALT and AST, and the antioxidant markers further revealed the safety of the formulation, particularly for the liver as a highly sensitive soft organ. Overall, the liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol were successfully formulated and expressed potential safety, supporting their application for the purposes of drug delivery and therapeutic interventions, particularly for hepatocellular and antioxidant therapies; however, further investigations for preclinical and clinical studies could be the future prospects for liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol to explore the safety and efficacy of these nanocarriers in various disease models and clinical settings.

TfR Aptamer-Functionalized MSNs for Enhancing Targeted Cellular Uptake and Therapy of Cancer Cells

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), as novel nanocarriers for drug delivery in cancer treatment, have attracted widespread concern because of their rich pore structure, large pore capacity, ease of modification, and biocompatibility. However, the limitation of nontargeting and low uptake efficiency hindered their further application. Considering the overexpression of the transferrin receptor (TfR) on most cancer cell membranes, herein, we propose a strategy to effectively enhance the cellular internalization of MSNs by arming them with the TfR aptamer. Cellular fluorescent imaging and flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that TfR aptamer-functionalized MSNs exhibited superior cellular internalization compared to unmodified or random sequence-modified MSNs toward three different cancer cell lines, including MCF-7, HeLa, and A549. Furthermore, TfR aptamer-functionalized MSNs displayed enhanced drug delivery efficiency compared with MSNs at equivalent doses and incubation times. These results suggested that TfR aptamer-functionalized MSNs have the potential for enhanced delivery of therapeutic agents into TfR-positive cancer cells to improve therapeutic efficacy.

Cancer/Testis Antigens as Targets for RNA-Based Anticancer Therapy

In the last few decades, RNA-based drugs have emerged as a promising candidate in the treatment of various diseases. The introduction of messenger RNA (mRNA) as a vaccine or therapeutic agent enables the production of almost any functional protein/peptide. The key to applying RNA therapy in clinical trials is developing safe and effective delivery systems. Exosomes and lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been exploited as promising vehicles for drug delivery. This review discusses the feasibility of exosomes and LNPs as vehicles for mRNA delivery. Cancer/testis antigens (CTAs) show restricted expression in normal tissues and widespread expression in cancer tissues. Many of these CTAs show expression in the sera of patients with cancers. These characteristics of CTAs make them excellent targets for cancer immunotherapy. This review summarizes the roles of CTAs in various life processes and current studies on mRNAs encoding CTAs. Clinical studies present the beneficial effects of mRNAs encoding CTAs in patients with cancers. This review highlight clinical studies employing mRNA-LNPs encoding CTAs.

Extracellular Vesicle MicroRNAs in Heart Failure: Pathophysiological Mediators and Therapeutic Targets

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging mediators of intracellular and inter-organ communications in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), especially in the pathogenesis of heart failure through the transference of EV-containing bioactive substances. microRNAs (miRNAs) are contained in EV cargo and are involved in the progression of heart failure. Over the past several years, a growing body of evidence has suggested that the biogenesis of miRNAs and EVs is tightly regulated, and the sorting of miRNAs into EVs is highly selective and tightly controlled. Extracellular miRNAs, particularly circulating EV-miRNAs, have shown promising potential as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers for heart failure and as therapeutic targets. In this review, we summarize the latest progress concerning the role of EV-miRNAs in HF and their application in a therapeutic strategy development for heart failure.

Exosome-Based Drug Delivery: Translation from Bench to Clinic

Exosome-based drug delivery is emerging as a promising field with the potential to revolutionize therapeutic interventions. Exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles released by various cell types, have attracted significant attention due to their unique properties and natural ability to transport bioactive molecules. These nano-sized vesicles, ranging in size from 30 to 150 nm, can effectively transport a variety of cargoes, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Compared to traditional drug delivery systems, exosomes exhibit unique biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and reduced toxicity. In addition, exosomes can be designed and tailored to improve targeting efficiency, cargo loading capacity, and stability, paving the way for personalized medicine and precision therapy. However, despite the promising potential of exosome-based drug delivery, its clinical application remains challenging due to limitations in exosome isolation and purification, low loading efficiency of therapeutic cargoes, insufficient targeted delivery, and rapid elimination in circulation. This comprehensive review focuses on the transition of exosome-based drug delivery from the bench to clinic, highlighting key aspects, such as exosome structure and biogenesis, cargo loading methods, surface engineering techniques, and clinical applications. It also discusses challenges and prospects in this emerging field.