Small extracellular vesicles: Non-negligible vesicles in tumor progression, diagnosis, and therapy

Tumor-derived exosomal LINC01812 induces M2 macrophage polarization to promote perineural invasion in cholangiocarcinoma

M2 macrophages play a critical role in the tumor microenvironment of invasive solid tumors. They are closely associated with perineural invasion (PNI) and are often linked to poor prognosis. In this context, tumor-derived exosomes serve as important mediators of intercellular communication. However, the relationship between tumor cell-induced M2 macrophages and PNI in cholangiocarcinoma remains unexplored. In this study, we utilized multiplex immunofluorescence and transcriptomic sequencing to demonstrate the upregulation of LINC01812 in cholangiocarcinoma tissues and its positive correlation with M2 macrophage infiltration. Exosomal lncRNA sequencing, exosome uptake experiments, RNA pull-down assays, and mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated that macrophages can internalize exosomal LINC01812 and promote the M2 phenotype in cholangiocarcinoma cells. Additionally, Transwell and in vitro cocultures with the dorsal root ganglia confirmed that the tumor microenvironment significantly enhances the nerve infiltration of cholangiocarcinoma cells via M2 macrophages. The findings of this study indicate that exosomes containing LINC01812 derived from cholangiocarcinoma can induce M2 macrophage polarization and facilitate nerve infiltration, thereby providing new potential therapeutic targets for managing PNI in cholangiocarcinoma.

Targeting HSP90AA1 to overcome multiple drug resistance in breast cancer using magnetic nanoparticles loaded with salicylic acid

Multiple drug resistance (MDR) remains a major obstacle in effective breast cancer chemotherapy. This study explores the role of HSP90AA1 in driving MDR and evaluates the potential of magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4@SA) loaded with salicylic acid (SA) to counteract drug resistance. A comprehensive screening of 200 SA-related target genes identified nine core genes, including HSP90AA1. Pharmacophore analysis revealed that SA interacts with HSP90AA1, a key regulator of mitochondrial K+ channels. Fe3O4@SA nanoparticles demonstrated efficient cellular uptake and lysosomal escape, markedly improving the chemosensitivity of resistant breast cancer cells and promoting apoptosis. In vivo experiments further confirmed the anticancer efficacy of Fe3O4@SA, highlighting its potential as a promising therapeutic strategy to overcome MDR in breast cancer.

sEV-mediated intercellular transformation from MGAT4AHigh to MGAT4ALow tumor cells via the HOTAIRM1/miR-196b-5p axis promotes apoptosis resistance in CTCL

ncRNAs encapsulated in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) facilitate intercellular communication and are associated with tumor progression. lncRNA-HOTAIRM1 is aberrantly expressed in various cancers. However, HOTAIRM1 expression and its downstream ceRNA network in CTCL remains unclear. In this study, we found that HOTAIRM1 was reduced in CTCL. Elevated HOTAIRM1 inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in vitro, resulting in reduced in vivo tumorigenic capacity. Whole-transcriptome sequencing and scRNA-Seq confirmed that differential expression of HOTAIRM1/miR-196b-5p/MGAT4A axis induces apoptosis resistance in CTCL. Mechanistically, reduced MGAT4A expression in CTCL leads to decreased N-glycosylation modification of membrane proteins and reduced Galectin-1 affinity, thereby inducing partial resistance to Galectin-1-induced apoptosis. Meanwhile, benign CD4 + T cells show sensitivity to Galectin-1-induced apoptosis due to their relatively higher MGAT4A expression. Furthermore, MGAT4ALow CTCL tumor cells transformed MGAT4AHigh CD4+ benign cells into MGAT4ALow cells by secreting sEVs containing miR-196b-5p, thereby reducing Galectin-1 binding and inducing apoptosis resistance. Engineered sEVs from HOTAIRM1-overexpressing cells contain elevated HOTAIRM1, which can specifically target malignant T cells, with reduced miR-196b-5p and increased MGAT4A, demonstrating apoptosis-inducing and tumor-suppressive effects in CTCL. This study identified changes in HOTAIRM1/miR-196b-5p/MGAT4A axis and N-glycosylation modifications in CTCL. Engineered HOTAIRM1-loaded sEVs demonstrated promising targeting and therapeutic effects in CTCL.

Effect of Bovine Follicular Fluid Small Extracellular Vesicles Isolated by Ultracentrifugation and Chromatography on In Vitro Oocyte Maturation and Embryo Development

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play a crucial role in intercellular communication and have demonstrated significant relevance in reproductive biotechnology, particularly in in vitro maturation (IVM) and bovine embryo production. This study evaluates the effects of bovine follicular fluid-derived extracellular vesicles (ffsEVs) isolated using two methods: ultracentrifugation (UC) and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) on oocyte maturation and preimplantational embryonic development. Significant differences in the size of ffsEVs obtained by both isolation methods were noted, with UC-derived ffsEVs (UC ffsEVs) being smaller than those isolated by SEC (SEC ffsEVs). UC ffsEVs were more effective in upregulating critical oocyte quality genes, such as HSF1 and CPT1B. However, no significant differences were observed in embryonic developmental rates. Furthermore, the expression of genes associated with preimplantational embryonic quality revealed that only the SEC ffsEVs group exhibited a significant increase in IFNT1 and SOX2 levels, indicating an enhancement in embryonic quality. Notably, blastocysts derived from SEC ffsEVs also showed a higher total cell count compared to those from UC ffsEVs. No differences were found in other critical genes like GLUT1 and CDX2. These results suggest that the use of SEC ffsEVs could improve the in vitro embryo production process, highlighting the importance of the isolation method in determining the functional efficacy of ffsEVs according to research objectives.

Flow cytometric procedures for deep characterization of nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been a notable increasing interest surrounding the identification and quantification of nano-sized particles, including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and viruses. The challenge posed by the nano-sized dimension of these particles makes precise examination a significant undertaking. Among the different techniques for the accurate study of EVs, flow cytometry stands out as the ideal method. It is characterized by high sensitivity, low time consumption, non-destructive sampling, and high throughput. In this article, we propose the optimization of flow cytometry procedures to identify, quantify, and purify EVs and virus-like particles. The protocol aims to reduce artefacts and errors in nano-sized particles counting, overall caused by the swarming effect. Different threshold strategies were compared to ensure result specificity. Additionally, the critical parameters to consider when using conventional flow cytometry outside of the common experimental context of use have also been identified. Finally, fluorescent-EVs sorting protocol was also developed with highly reliable results using a conventional cell sorter.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated chemoresistance in breast cancer: focus on miRNA cargo

The role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in mediating chemoresistance has gained significant attention due to their ability to transfer bioactive molecules between drug-resistant and drug-sensitive cells. In particular, they have been demonstrated to play an active part in breast cancer chemoresistance by the horizontal transfer of genetic and protein material. This review highlights the role of EVs, particularly their miRNA cargo, in driving drug resistance in breast cancer. EVs derived from chemoresistant cells carry miRNAs and lncRNAs, which are known to modulate gene networks involved in cell proliferation and survival. These cargo molecules suppress apoptosis by targeting pro-apoptotic genes like PTEN and BIM, promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through the regulation of pathways such as TGF-β and Wnt/b-catenin, and contribute to tumor growth and resistance by enhancing angiogenesis and modulating the tumor microenvironment. Beyond RNA-mediated effects, EVs also transfer functional proteins, including P-glycoprotein and Hsp70, which impact cellular metabolism and survival pathways. Our findings underscore the significance of EVs in breast cancer chemoresistance, suggesting their potential involvement as possible prognostic factors to predict therapy response and as therapeutic targets in combination with usual therapy.

Extracellular Vesicles from Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells Induce Activation of Different Cancer-Associated Fibroblast Subtypes

Background: Lung cancer, including the major subtype lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, largely due to metastasis. Improving survival rates requires new treatment strategies and a deeper understanding of the mechanisms that drive tumor progression within the tumor microenvironment (TME). This study investigated the impact of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from LUAD cells on lung fibroblasts. Methods: EVs were isolated from LUAD cell lines via ultracentrifugation and characterized using nanoparticle tracking analysis and Western blotting. Lung fibroblasts were treated with PBS, TGFβ, or EVs, and their activation was assessed through protein (Western blotting) and RNA analyses (RNA seq and RT-qPCR). Results: The results confirmed the TGFβ induced activation and showed that LUAD EVs could also activate fibroblasts, increasing cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) markers. While EV-induced CAF activation displayed unique features, like an increase in proliferation-related genes, the EV and TGFβ treatments also shared some differentially expressed genes. The EV groups induced a higher expression of ECM remodeling and EMT-associated genes, but some of those genes were also upregulated in the TGFβ group. Mesenchymal genes POSTN and SPOCK1 were significantly upregulated in TGFβ- and EV-treated fibroblasts. Their secretion as proteins from the TGFβ- and EV-induced CAFs was not significant, confirmed through ELISA. Conclusions: These findings suggest that LUAD EVs play a role in CAF activation through both shared and distinct pathways compared to canonical TGFβ activation, potentially identifying novel gene expressions involved in CAF activation. Additionally, optimal protein secretion conditions of confirmed CAF-upregulated genes need to be established to determine their contribution to the TME.

The roles of migrasomes in immunity, barriers, and diseases

Migrasomes are recently identified extracellular vesicles and organelles formed in conjunction with cell migration. They are situated at the rear of migrating cells, exhibit a circular or elliptical membrane-enclosed structure, and function as a new organelle. Migrasomes selectively sort intercellular components, mediating a cell migration-dependent release mechanism known as migracytosis and modulating cell-cell communication. Accumulated evidence clarifies migrasome formation processes and indicates their diverse functional roles. Migrasomes may also be potentially correlated with the occurrence, progression, and prognosis of certain diseases. Migrasomes' involvement in physiological and pathological processes highlights their potential for expanding our understanding of biological procedures and as a target in clinical therapy. However, the precise mechanisms and full extent of their involvement in immunity, barriers, and diseases remain unclear. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the roles of migrasomes in human immunity and barriers, in addition to providing insights into their impact on human diseases. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Migrasomes, newly identified extracellular vesicles and organelles, form during cell migration and are located at the rear of migrating cells. These circular or elliptical structures mediate migracytosis, selectively sorting intercellular components and modulating cell-cell communication. Evidence suggests diverse functional roles for migrasomes, including potential links to disease occurrence, progression, and prognosis. Their involvement in physiological and pathological processes highlights their significance in understanding biological procedures and potential clinical therapies. However, their exact mechanisms in immunity, barriers, and diseases remain unclear. This review provides an overview of migrasomes' roles in human immunity and barriers, and their impact on diseases.

Extracellular vesicles in the HCC microenvironment: Implications for therapy and biomarkers

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) stands as the sixth most prevalent cancer and the third leading cause of cancer mortality globally. Despite surgical resection being the preferred approach for early-stage HCC, most patients are diagnosed at intermediate to advanced stages, limiting treatment options to chemotherapy and immunotherapy, which often yield poor outcomes. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), minute lipid-bilayered particles released by diverse cells under various physiological and pathological conditions, are crucial for mediating communication between cells. Mounting evidence indicates that EVs sourced from different cells can profoundly influence the HCC tumor microenvironment (TME), thereby affecting the progression of HCC. Given their immunogenicity and liver-targeting properties, these EVs not only hold promise for HCC treatment but also provide avenues for advancing early diagnostic methods and assessing prognosis. This review not only describes the function of EVs within the HCC tumor microenvironment but also analyzes their therapeutic advantages and explores their significance in various therapeutic approaches for HCC, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, combination therapy, and their role as innovative drug delivery carriers. Furthermore, it highlights the potential of EVs as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC.

The role of exosomes in liver cancer: comprehensive insights from biological function to therapeutic applications

In recent years, cancer, especially primary liver cancer (including hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma), has posed a serious threat to human health. In the field of liver cancer, exosomes play an important role in liver cancer initiation, metastasis and interaction with the tumor microenvironment. Exosomes are a class of nanoscale extracellular vesicles (EVs)secreted by most cells and rich in bioactive molecules, including RNA, proteins and lipids, that mediate intercellular communication during physiological and pathological processes. This review reviews the multiple roles of exosomes in liver cancer, including the initiation, progression, and metastasis of liver cancer, as well as their effects on angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT), immune evasion, and drug resistance. Exosomes have great potential as biomarkers for liver cancer diagnosis and prognosis because they carry specific molecular markers that facilitate early detection and evaluation of treatment outcomes. In addition, exosomes, as a new type of drug delivery vector, have unique advantages in the targeted therapy of liver cancer and provide a new strategy for the treatment of liver cancer. The challenges and prospects of exosome-based immunotherapy in the treatment of liver cancer were also discussed. However, challenges such as the standardization of isolation techniques and the scalability of therapeutic applications remain significant hurdles.

Emerging role and translational potential of small extracellular vesicles in neuroscience

Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) are endogenous lipid-bound membrane vesicles secreted by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells into the extracellular environment, performs several biological functions such as cell-cell communication, transfer of proteins, mRNA, and ncRNA to target cells in distant sites. Due to their role in molecular pathogenesis and its potential to deliver biological cargo to target cells, it has become a prominent area of interest in recent research in the field of Neuroscience. However, their role in neurological disorders, like neurodegenerative diseases is more complex and still unaddressed. Thus, this review focuses on the role of sEV in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases, including their biogenesis, classification, and pathogenesis, with translational advantages and limitations in the area of neurobiology.

Role of extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in the progression, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer, characterized by difficulties in early diagnosis, prone to distant metastasis, and high recurrence rates following surgery. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a class of cell-derived particles, including exosomes, characterized by a phospholipid bilayer. They serve as effective carriers for intercellular communication cargo, including proteins and nucleic acids, and are widely involved in tumor progression. They are being explored as potential tumor biomarkers and novel therapeutic avenues. We provide a brief overview of the biogenesis and characteristics of EVs to better understand their classification standards. The focus of this review is on the research progress of EV-associated proteins in the field of HCC. EV-associated proteins are involved in tumor growth and regulation in HCC, participate in intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment (TME), and are implicated in events including angiogenesis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) during tumor metastasis. In addition, EV-associated proteins show promising diagnostic efficacy for HCC. For the treatment of HCC, they also demonstrate significant potential including enhancing the efficacy of tumor vaccines, and as targeting cargo anchors. Facing current challenges, we propose the future directions of research in this field. Above all, research on EV-associated proteins offers the potential to enhance our comprehension of HCC and offer novel insights for developing new treatment strategies.

Review of pre-metastatic niches induced by osteosarcoma-derived extracellular vesicles in lung metastasis: A potential opportunity for diagnosis and intervention

Osteosarcoma (OS) has a high propensity for lung metastasis, which is the leading cause of OS-related death and treatment failure. Intercellular communication between OS cells and distant lung host cells is required for the successful lung metastasis of OS cells to the lung. Before OS cells infiltrate the lung, in situ OS cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) that act as mediators of cell-to-cell communication. In recent years, EVs have been confirmed to act as bridges and key drivers between in situ tumors and metastatic lesions by regulating the formation of a pre-metastatic niche (PMN), defined as a microenvironment suitable for disseminated tumor cell engraftment and colonization, in distant target organs. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the underlying mechanisms of PMN formation induced by OS-derived EVs and the potential roles of EVs as targets or drug carriers in regulating PMN formation in the lung. We also provide an overview of their potential EV-based therapeutic strategies for hindering PMN formation in the context of OS lung metastasis.

The sEVs miR-487a/Notch2/GATA3 axis promotes osteosarcoma lung metastasis by inducing macrophage polarization toward the M2-subtype

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are important mediators of intercellular communication between tumor cells and their surrounding environment. Furthermore, the mechanisms by which miRNAs carried in tumor sEVs regulate macrophage polarization remain largely unknown. To concentrate sEVs, we used the traditional ultracentrifugation method. Western blot, NanoSight, and transmission electron microscopy were used to identify sEVs. To determine the function of sEVs-miR-487a, we conducted in vivo and in vitro investigations. The intercellular communication mechanism between osteosarcoma cells and M2 macrophages, mediated by sEVs carrying miR-487a, was validated using luciferase reporter assays, transwell assays, and Western blot analysis. In vitro, sEVs enriched in miR-487a and delivered miR-487a to macrophages, promoting macrophage polarization toward an M2-like type, which promotes proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of osteosarcoma cells. In vivo, sEVs enriched in miR-487a facilitate lung metastasis of osteosarcoma. Moreover, plasma miR-487a in sEVs was shown to be a potential biomarker applicable for osteosarcoma diagnosis. In summary, miR-487a derived from osteosarcoma cells can be transferred to macrophages via sEVs, then promote macrophage polarization towards an M2-like type by targeting Notch2 and activating the GATA3 pathway. In a feedback loop, the activation of macrophages accelerates epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which in turn promotes the migration, invasion, and lung metastasis of osteosarcoma cells. This reciprocal interaction between activated macrophages and osteosarcoma cells contributes to the progression of the disease. Our data demonstrate a new mechanism that osteosarcoma tumor cells derived exosomal-miR-487a which is involved in osteosarcoma development by regulating macrophage polarization in tumor microenvironment (TME).

Unveiling the Dynamic Interplay between Cancer Stem Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment in Melanoma: Implications for Novel Therapeutic Strategies

Cutaneous melanoma still represents a significant health burden worldwide, being responsible for the majority of skin cancer deaths. Key advances in therapeutic strategies have significantly improved patient outcomes; however, most patients experience drug resistance and tumor relapse. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small subpopulation of cells in different tumors, including melanoma, endowed with distinctive capacities of self-renewal and differentiation into bulk tumor cells. Melanoma CSCs are characterized by the expression of specific biomarkers and intracellular pathways; moreover, they play a pivotal role in tumor onset, progression and drug resistance. In recent years, great efforts have been made to dissect the molecular mechanisms underlying the protumor activities of melanoma CSCs to provide the basis for novel CSC-targeted therapies. Herein, we highlight the intricate crosstalk between melanoma CSCs and bystander cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), including immune cells, endothelial cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and its role in melanoma progression. Specifically, we discuss the peculiar capacities of melanoma CSCs to escape the host immune surveillance, to recruit immunosuppressive cells and to educate immune cells toward an immunosuppressive and protumor phenotype. We also address currently investigated CSC-targeted strategies that could pave the way for new promising therapeutic approaches for melanoma care.

Lysosomal exocytosis: From cell protection to protumoral functions

Lysosomes are single membrane bounded group of acidic organelles that can be involved in a process called lysosomal exocytosis which leads to the extracellular release of their content. Lysosomal exocytosis is required for plasma membrane repair or remodeling events such as bone resorption, antigen presentation or mitosis, and for protection against toxic agents such as heavy metals. Recently, it has been showed that to fulfill this protective role, lysosomal exocytosis needs some autophagic proteins, in an autophagy-independent manner. In addition to these crucial physiological roles, lysosomal exocytosis plays a major protumoral role in various cancers. This effect is exerted through tumor microenvironment modifications, including extracellular matrix remodeling, acidosis, oncogenic and profibrogenic signals. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the different elements released in the microenvironment during lysosomal exocytosis, i.e. proteases, exosomes, and protons, and their effects in the context of tumor development and treatment.

Apigenin inhibits tumor angiogenesis by hindering microvesicle biogenesis via ARHGEF1

Extracellular vesicles are essential for intercellular communication and are involved in tumor progression. Inhibiting the direct release of extracellular vesicles seems to be an effective strategy in inhibiting tumor progression, but lacks of investigation. Here, we report a natural flavonoid compound, apigenin, could significantly inhibit the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma by preventing microvesicle secretion. Mechanistically, apigenin primarily targets the guanine nucleotide exchange factor ARHGEF1, inhibiting the activity of small G protein Cdc42, which is essential in regulating the release of microvesicles from tumor cells. In turn, this inhibits tumor angiogenesis related to VEGF90K transported on microvesicles, ultimately impeding tumor progression. Collectively, these findings highlight the therapeutic potential of apigenin and shed light on its anticancer mechanisms through inhibiting microvesicle biogenesis, providing a solid foundation for the refinement and practical application of apigenin.

Neural Stem Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles: key Players in Ischemic Stroke Therapy - A Comprehensive Literature Review

Ischemic stroke, being a prominent contributor to global disability and mortality, lacks an efficacious therapeutic approach in current clinical settings. Neural stem cells (NSCs) are a type of stem cell that are only found inside the nervous system. These cells can differentiate into various kinds of cells, potentially regenerating or restoring neural networks within areas of the brain that have been destroyed. This review begins by providing an introduction to the existing therapeutic approaches for ischemic stroke, followed by an examination of the promise and limits associated with the utilization of NSCs for the treatment of ischemic stroke. Subsequently, a comprehensive overview was conducted to synthesize the existing literature on the underlying processes of neural stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (NSC-sEVs) transplantation therapy in the context of ischemic stroke. These mechanisms encompass neuroprotection, inflammatory response suppression, and endogenous nerve and vascular regeneration facilitation. Nevertheless, the clinical translation of NSC-sEVs is hindered by challenges such as inadequate targeting efficacy and insufficient content loading. In light of these limitations, we have compiled an overview of the advancements in utilizing modified NSC-sEVs for treating ischemic stroke based on current methods of extracellular vesicle modification. In conclusion, examining NSC-sEVs-based therapeutic approaches is anticipated to be prominent in both fundamental and applied investigations about ischemic stroke.

Function and mechanism of exosomes derived from different cells as communication mediators in colorectal cancer metastasis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks as the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality, with metastasis being the primary determinant of poor prognosis in patients. Investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying CRC metastasis is currently a prominent and challenging area of research. Exosomes, as crucial intercellular communication mediators, facilitate the transfer of metabolic and genetic information from cells of origin to recipient cells. Their roles in mediating information exchange between CRC cells and immune cells, fibroblasts, and other cell types are pivotal in reshaping the tumor microenvironment, regulating key biological processes such as invasion, migration, and formation of pre-metastatic niche. This article comprehensively examines the communication function and mechanism of exosomes derived from different cells in cancer metastasis, while also presenting an outlook on current research advancements and future application prospects. The aim is to offer a distinctive perspective that contributes to accurate diagnosis and rational treatment strategies for CRC.

Single-cell transcriptomic analysis reveals the landscape of epithelial-mesenchymal transition molecular heterogeneity in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a prevalent and highly lethal malignant disease. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is crucial in promoting ESCC development. However, the molecular heterogeneity of ESCC and the potential inhibitory strategies targeting EMT remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed high-resolution single-cell transcriptome data encompassing 209,231 ESCC cells from 39 tumor samples and 16 adjacent samples obtained from 44 individuals. We identified distinct cell populations exhibiting heterogeneous EMT characteristics and identified 87 EMT-associated molecules. The expression profiles of these EMT-associated molecules showed heterogeneity across different stages of ESCC progression. Moreover, we observed that EMT primarily occurred in early-stage tumors, before lymph node metastasis, and significantly promoted the rapid deterioration of ESCC. Notably, we identified SERPINH1 as a potential novel marker for ESCC EMT. By classifying ESCC patients based on EMT gene sets, we found that those with high EMT exhibited poorer prognosis. Furthermore, we predicted and experimentally validated drugs targeting ESCC EMT, including dactolisib, docetaxel, and nutlin, which demonstrated efficacy in inhibiting EMT and metastasis in ESCC. Through the integration of scRNA-seq, RNA-seq, and TCGA data with experimental validation, our comprehensive analysis elucidated the landscape of EMT during the entire course of ESCC development and metastasis. These findings provide valuable insights and a reference for refining ESCC clinical treatment strategies.

Exosomal non-coding RNAs in colorectal cancer metastasis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a type of gastrointestinal cancer with high morbidity and mortality rates, and is often accompanied by distant metastases. Metastasis is a major cause of shortened survival time and poor treatment outcomes for patients with CRC. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the metastasis of CRC remain unclear. Exosomes are a class of small extracellular vesicles that originate from almost all human cells and can transmit biological information (e.g., nucleic acids, lipids, proteins, and metabolites) from secretory cells to target recipient cells. Recent studies have revealed that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) can be released by exosomes into the tumour microenvironment or specific tissues, and play a pivotal role in tumorigenesis by regulating a series of key molecules or signalling pathways, particularly those involved in tumour metastasis. Exosomal ncRNAs have potential as novel therapeutic targets for CRC metastasis, and can also be used as liquid biopsy biomarkers because of their specificity and sensitivity. Therefore, further investigations into the biological function and clinical value of exosomal ncRNAs will be of great value for the prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of CRC metastasis.

[Hepatocellular Carcinoma-Derived Exosomes: Key Players in Intercellular Communication Within the Tumor Microenvironment]

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in the world. Due to the insidious onset and rapid progression and a lack of effective treatments, the prognosis of patients with HCC is extremely poor, with the average 5-year survival rate being less than 10%. The tumor microenvironment (TME), the internal environment in which HCC develops, can regulate the oncogenesis, development, invasion, and metastasis of HCC. During the process of cancer progression, HCC cells can regulate the biological behaviors of tumor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, cancer-associated immune cells, and other cells in the TME by releasing exosomes containing specific signals, thereby promoting cancer progression. However, the exact molecular mechanisms and the roles of exosomes in the specific cellular regulation of these processes are not fully understood. Herein, we summarized the TME components of HCC, the sources and the biological traits of exosomes in the TME, and the impact of mechanical factors on exosomes. In addition, special attention was given to the discussion of the effects of HCC-exosomes on different types of cells in the microenvironment. There are still many difficulties to be overcome before exosomes can be applied as carriers in clinical cancer treatment. First of all, the homogeneity of exosomes is difficult to ensure. Secondly, exosomes are mainly administered through subcutaneous injection. Although this method is simple and easy to implement, the absorption efficiency is not ideal. Thirdly, exosome extraction methods are limited in number and inefficient, making it difficult to prepare exosomes in large quantities. It is important to ensure that exosomes are used in sufficient quantities to trigger an effective tumor immune response, especially for exosome-mediated tumor immunotherapy. With the improvement in identification, isolation, and purification technology, exosomes are expected to be successfully used in the clinical diagnosis of early-stage HCC and the clinical treatment of liver cancer.