Conformational properties of glucose-based disaccharides investigated using molecular dynamics simulations with local elevation umbrella sampling

Nonreducing Sugar Scaffold Enables the Development of Immunomodulatory TLR4-specific LPS Mimetics with Picomolar Potency

Innate immune defense mechanisms against infection and cancer encompass the modulation of pattern recognition receptor (PRR)-mediated inflammation, including upregulation of various transcription factors and the activation of pro-inflammatory pathways important for immune surveillance. Dysfunction of PRRs-mediated signaling has been implicated in cancer and autoimmune diseases, while the overactivation of PRRs-driven responses during infection can lead to devastating consequences such as acute lung injury or sepsis. We used crystal structure-based design to develop immunomodulatory lipopolysaccharide (LPS) mimetics targeting one of the ubiquitous PRRs, Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4). Taking advantage of an exo-anomeric conformation and specific molecular shape of synthetic nonreducing β,β-diglucosamine, which was investigated by NMR, we developed two sets of lipid A mimicking glycolipids capable of either potently activating innate immune responses or inhibiting pro-inflammatory signaling. Stereoselective 1,1'-glycosylation towards fully orthogonally protected nonreducing GlcNβ(1↔1')βGlcN followed by stepwise assembly of differently functionalised phosphorylated glycolipids provided biologically active molecules that were evaluated for their ability to trigger or to inhibit cellular innate immune responses. Two LPS mimetics, identified as potent TLR4-specific inducers of the intracellular signaling pathways, serve as vaccine adjuvant- and immunotherapy candidates, while anionic glycolipids with TLR4-inhibitory potential hold therapeutic promise for the management of acute or chronic inflammation.

The Conformation of Glycosidic Linkages According to Various Force Fields: Monte Carlo Modeling of Polysaccharides Based on Extrapolation of Short-Chain Properties

The conformational features of the glycosidic linkage are the most important variable to consider when studying di-, oligo-, and polysaccharide molecules using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The accuracy of the theoretical model describing this degree of freedom influences the quality of the results obtained from MD calculations based on this model. This article focuses on the following two issues related to the conformation of the glycosidic linkage. First, we describe the results of a comparative analysis of the predictions of three carbohydrate-dedicated classical force fields for MD simulations, namely, CHARMM, GLYCAM, and GROMOS, in the context of different parameters of structural and energetic nature related to the conformation of selected types of glycosidic linkages, α(1 → 4), β(1 → 3), and β(1 → 4), connecting glucopyranose units. This analysis revealed several differences, mainly concerning the energy levels of the secondary and tertiary conformers and the linkage flexibility within the dominant exo-syn conformation for α(1 → 4) and β(1 → 3) linkages. Some aspects of the comparative analysis also included the newly developed, carbohydrate-dedicated Martini 3 coarse-grained force field. Second, to overcome the time-scale problem associated with sampling slow degrees of freedom in polysaccharide chains during MD simulations, we developed a coarse-grained (CG) model based on the data from MD simulations and designed for Monte Carlo modeling. This model (CG MC) is based on information from simulations of short saccharide chains, effectively sampled in atomistic MD simulations, and is capable of extrapolating local conformational properties to the case of polysaccharides of arbitrary length. The CG MC model has the potential to estimate the conformations of very long polysaccharide chains, taking into account the influence of secondary and tertiary conformations of glycosidic linkages. With respect to the comparative analysis of force fields, the application of CG MC modeling showed that relatively small differences in the predictions of individual force fields with respect to a single glycosidic linkage accumulate when considering their effect on the structure of longer chains, leading to drastically different predictions with respect to parameters describing the polymer conformation, such as the persistence length.

Revealing the key structural features promoting the helical conformation in algal polysaccharide carrageenan in solution

Carrageenans are industrially important polysaccharides with tunable viscoelastic and gelation properties. The function of polysaccharide depends on its conformation and chemical composition. However, the solution conformations of carrageenans are highly debated, and the structure-function relationship remains elusive. Here, we have studied the intrinsic conformational behavior of a series of carrageenan hexamers in solution, using extensive all-atom classical MD and enhanced sampling. Our findings comprehensively delineate that carrageenans containing the 3,6-anhydrous bridge (κ-C, ι-C, θ-C, and non-sulfated β-C) adopt compact helical structures as their predominant conformation in solution, whereas carrageenans without the bridge (μ-C, ν-C, and λ-C) remain as extended loosely packed helices; opposing the 'coil-to-helix' paradigm. Glycosidic linkages access a few allowed orientations. We hypothesize that the 3,6-anhydrous bridge, irrespective of carrageenan's sulfation pattern, is essential for stabilizing the helical conformation at the single-chain level. It provides necessary flexibility to the glycosidic linkage to sample conformations close to the experimentally derived helical structure and also prevents the sugar ring flipping. Sulfate groups mainly modify the chain stiffness due to steric and stereo-electronic effects and participate in hydrogen bonding. Such atomistic insights will be helpful for understanding the differential gelation mechanisms of carrageenans and fine-tuning polysaccharide backbone for various industrial applications.

SIRAH Late Harvest: Coarse-Grained Models for Protein Glycosylation

Glycans constitute one of the most complex families of biological molecules. Despite their crucial role in a plethora of biological processes, they remain largely uncharacterized because of their high complexity. Their intrinsic flexibility and the vast variability associated with the many combination possibilities have hampered their experimental determination. Although theoretical methods have proven to be a valid alternative to the study of glycans, the large size associated with polysaccharides, proteoglycans, and glycolipids poses significant challenges to a fully atomistic description of biologically relevant glycoconjugates. On the other hand, the exquisite dependence on hydrogen bonds to determine glycans' structure makes the development of simplified or coarse-grained (CG) representations extremely challenging. This is particularly the case when glycan representations are expected to be compatible with CG force fields that include several molecular types. We introduce a CG representation able to simulate a wide variety of polysaccharides and common glycosylation motifs in proteins, which is fully compatible with the CG SIRAH force field. Examples of application to N-glycosylated proteins, including antibody recognition and calcium-mediated glycan-protein interactions, highlight the versatility of the enlarged set of CG molecules provided by SIRAH.

Glycan Shape, Motions, and Interactions Explored by NMR Spectroscopy

Glycans in the form of oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates are ubiquitous in nature, and their structures range from linear assemblies to highly branched and decorated constructs. Solution state NMR spectroscopy facilitates elucidation of preferred conformations and shapes of the saccharides, motions, and dynamic aspects related to processes over time as well as the study of transient interactions with proteins. Identification of intermolecular networks at the atomic level of detail in recognition events by carbohydrate-binding proteins known as lectins, unraveling interactions with antibodies, and revealing substrate scope and action of glycosyl transferases employed for synthesis of oligo- and polysaccharides may efficiently be analyzed by NMR spectroscopy. By utilizing NMR active nuclei present in glycans and derivatives thereof, including isotopically enriched compounds, highly detailed information can be obtained by the experiments. Subsequent analysis may be aided by quantum chemical calculations of NMR parameters, machine learning-based methodologies and artificial intelligence. Interpretation of the results from NMR experiments can be complemented by extensive molecular dynamics simulations to obtain three-dimensional dynamic models, thereby clarifying molecular recognition processes involving the glycans.

Flexible Gaussian Accelerated Molecular Dynamics to Enhance Biological Sampling

Molecular dynamics simulations often struggle to obtain sufficient sampling to study complex molecular events due to high energy barriers separating the minima of interest. Multiple enhanced sampling techniques have been developed and improved over the years to tackle this issue. Gaussian accelerated molecular dynamics (GaMD) is a recently developed enhanced sampling technique that works by adding a biasing potential, lifting the energy landscape up, and decreasing the height of its barriers. GaMD allows one to increase the sampling of events of interest without the need of a priori knowledge of the system or the relevant coordinates. All required acceleration parameters can be obtained from a previous search run. Upon its development, several improvements for the methodology have been proposed, among them selective GaMD in which the boosting potential is selectively applied to the region of interest. There are currently four selective GaMD methods that have shown promising results. However, all of these methods are constrained on the number, location, and scenarios in which this selective boosting potential can be applied to ligands, peptides, or protein-protein interactions. In this work, we showcase a GROMOS implementation of the GaMD methodology with a fully flexible selective GaMD approach that allows the user to define, in a straightforward way, multiple boosting potentials for as many regions as desired. We show and analyze the advantages of this flexible selective approach on two previously used test systems, the alanine dipeptide and the chignolin peptide, and extend these examples to study its applicability and potential to study conformational changes of glycans and glycosylated proteins.

Therapeutic Targeting of TLR4 for Inflammation, Infection, and Cancer: A Perspective for Disaccharide Lipid A Mimetics

The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway plays a central role in the prompt defense against infectious challenge and provides immediate response to Gram-negative bacterial infection. The TLR4/MD-2 complex can sense and respond to various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) being the most potent and the most frequently occurring activator of the TLR4-mediated inflammation. TLR4 is believed to be both a friend and foe since improperly regulated TLR4 signaling can result in the overactivation of immune responses leading to sepsis, acute lung injury, or pathologic chronic inflammation involved in cancer and autoimmune disease. TLR4 is also considered a legitimate target for vaccine adjuvant development since its activation can boost the adaptive immune responses. The dual action of the TLR4 complex justifies the efforts in the development of both TLR4 antagonists as antisepsis drug candidates or remedies for chronic inflammatory diseases and TLR4 agonists as vaccine adjuvants or immunotherapeutics. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the biochemical evidences for possible pharmacologic applications of TLR4 ligands as therapeutics and report our systematic studies on the design, synthesis, and immunobiological evaluation of carbohydrate-based TLR4 antagonists with nanomolar affinity for MD-2 as well as disaccharide-based TLR4 agonists with picomolar affinity for the TLR4/MD-2 complex.

Lipid/water interface of galactolipid bilayers in different lyotropic liquid-crystalline phases

In this study, carried out using computational methods, the organisation of the lipid/water interface of bilayers composed of galactolipids with both α-linolenoyl acyl chains is analysed and compared in three different lyotropic liquid-crystalline phases. These systems include the monogalactosyldiglyceride (MGDG) and digalactosyldiglyceride (DGDG) bilayers in the lamellar phase, the MGDG double bilayer during stalk phase formation and the inverse hexagonal MGDG phase. For each system, lipid-water and direct and water-mediated lipid-lipid interactions between the lipids of one bilayer leaflet and those of two apposing leaflets at the onset of new phase (stalk) formation, are identified. A network of interactions between DGDG molecules and its topological properties are derived and compared to those for the MGDG bilayer.

Lipid A Mimetics Based on Unnatural Disaccharide Scaffold as Potent TLR4 Agonists for Prospective Immunotherapeutics and Adjuvants

TLR4 is a key pattern recognition receptor that can sense pathogen- and danger- associated molecular patterns to activate the downstream signaling pathways which results in the upregulation of transcription factors and expression of interferons and cytokines to mediate protective pro-inflammatory responses involved in immune defense. Bacterial lipid A is the primary TLR4 ligand with very complex, species-specific, and barely predictable structure-activity relationships. Given that therapeutic targeting of TLR4 is an emerging tool for management of a variety of human diseases, the development of novel TLR4 activating biomolecules other than lipid A is of vast importance. We report on design, chemical synthesis and immunobiology of novel glycan-based lipid A-mimicking molecules that can activate human and murine TLR4-mediated signaling with picomolar affinity. Exploiting crystal structure - based design we have created novel disaccharide lipid A mimetics (DLAMs) where the inherently flexible β(1→6)-linked diglucosamine backbone of lipid A is exchanged with a conformationally restrained non-reducing βGlcN(1↔1')βGlcN scaffold. Excellent stereoselectivity in a challenging β,β-1,1' glycosylation was achieved by tuning the reactivities of donor and acceptor molecules using protective group manipulation strategy. Divergent streamlined synthesis of β,β-1,1'-linked diglucosamine-derived glycolipids entailing multiple long-chain (R)-3- acyloxyacyl residues and up two three phosphate groups was developed. Specific 3D-molecular shape and conformational rigidity of unnatural β,β-1,1'-linked diglucosamine combined with carefully optimized phosphorylation and acylation pattern ensured efficient induction of the TLR4-mediated signaling in a species-independent manner.

Molecular simulations of complex carbohydrates and glycoconjugates

Complex carbohydrates (glycans) are the most abundant and versatile biopolymers in nature. The broad diversity of biochemical functions that carbohydrates cover is a direct consequence of the variety of 3D architectures they can adopt, displaying branched or linear arrangements, widely ranging in sizes, and with the highest diversity of building blocks of any other natural biopolymer. Despite this unparalleled complexity, a common denominator can be found in the glycans' inherent flexibility, which hinders experimental characterization, but that can be addressed by high-performance computing (HPC)-based molecular simulations. In this short review, I present and discuss the state-of-the-art of molecular simulations of complex carbohydrates and glycoconjugates, highlighting methodological strengths and weaknesses, important insights through emblematic case studies, and suggesting perspectives for future developments.

Conformational preferences of triantennary and tetraantennary hybrid N-glycans in aqueous solution: Insights from 20 μs long atomistic molecular dynamic simulations

In the current study, we have investigated the conformational dynamics of a triantennary (N-glycan1) and tetraantennary (N-glycan2) hybrid N-glycans found on the surface of the HIV glycoprotein using 20 μs long all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The main objective of the present study is to elucidate the influence of adding a complex branch on the overall glycan structural dynamics. Our investigation suggests that the average RMSD value increases when a complex branch is added to N-glycan1. However, the RMSD distribution is relatively wider in the case of N-glycan1 compared to N-glycan2, which indicates that multiple complex branches restrict the conformational variability of glycans. A similar observation is obtained from the principal component analysis of both glycans. All the puckering states (⁴C₁ to ¹C₄) of each monosaccharide except mannose are sampled in our simulations, although the ⁴C₁ chair form is energetically more favorable than ¹C₄. In N-glycan1, the 1-6 linkage in the mannose branch [Man(9)-α(1-6)-Man(5)] stays in the gauche-gauche cluster, whereas it moves towards trans-gauche in N-glycan2. For both glycans, mannose branches are more flexible than the complex branches, and adding a complex branch does not influence the dynamics of the mannose branches. We have noticed that the end-to-end distance of the complex branch shortens by ∼ 10 Å in the presence of another complex branch. This suggests that in the presence of an additional complex branch, the other complex branch adopts a close folded structure. All these conformational changes involve the selective formation of inter-residue and water-mediated hydrogen-bond networks.

Structure-guided glyco-engineering of ACE2 for improved potency as soluble SARS-CoV-2 decoy receptor

Infection and viral entry of SARS-CoV-2 crucially depends on the binding of its Spike protein to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) presented on host cells. Glycosylation of both proteins is critical for this interaction. Recombinant soluble human ACE2 can neutralize SARS-CoV-2 and is currently undergoing clinical tests for the treatment of COVID-19. We used 3D structural models and molecular dynamics simulations to define the ACE2 N-glycans that critically influence Spike-ACE2 complex formation. Engineering of ACE2 N-glycosylation by site-directed mutagenesis or glycosidase treatment resulted in enhanced binding affinities and improved virus neutralization without notable deleterious effects on the structural stability and catalytic activity of the protein. Importantly, simultaneous removal of all accessible N-glycans from recombinant soluble human ACE2 yields a superior SARS-CoV-2 decoy receptor with promise as effective treatment for COVID-19 patients.

Combining Computational Chemistry and Crystallography for a Better Understanding of the Structure of Cellulose

The approaches in this article seek to enhance understanding of cellulose at the molecular level, independent of the source and the particular crystalline form of cellulose. Four main areas of structure research are reviewed. Initially, the molecular shape is inferred from the crystal structures of many small molecules that have β-(1→4) linkages. Then, conformational analyses with potential energy calculations of cellobiose are covered, followed by the use of Atoms-In-Molecules theory to learn about interactions in experimental and theoretical structures. The last section covers models of cellulose nanoparticles. Controversies addressed include the stability of twofold screw-axis conformations, the influence of different computational methods, the predictability of crystalline conformations by studies of isolated molecules, and the twisting of model cellulose crystals.

O-Methylation in Carbohydrates: An NMR and MD Simulation Study with Application to Methylcellulose

Methylated carbohydrates are important from both biological and technical perspectives. Specifically, methylcellulose is an interesting cellulose derivative that has applications in foods, materials, cosmetics, and many other fields. While the molecular dynamics simulation technique has the potential for both advancing the fundamental understanding of this polymer and aiding in the development of specific applications, a general drawback is the lack of experimentally validated interaction potentials for the methylated moieties. In the present study, simulations using the GROMOS 56 carbohydrate force field are compared to NMR spin–spin coupling constants related to the conformation of the exocyclic torsion angle ω in d-glucopyranose and derivatives containing a 6-O-methyl substituent and a ¹³C-isotopologue thereof. A ³J_CC Karplus-type relationship is proposed for the C5–C6–O6–C_Me torsion angle. Moreover, solvation free energies are compared to experimental data for small model compounds. Alkylation in the form of 6-O-methylation affects exocyclic torsion only marginally. Computed solvation free energies between nonmethylated and methylated molecules were internally consistent, which validates the application of these interaction potentials for more specialized purposes.

Tailored Modulation of Cellular Pro-inflammatory Responses With Disaccharide Lipid A Mimetics

Pro-inflammatory signaling mediated by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation-2 (MD-2) complex plays a crucial role in the instantaneous protection against infectious challenge and largely contributes to recovery from Gram-negative infection. Activation of TLR4 also boosts the adaptive immunity which is implemented in the development of vaccine adjuvants by application of minimally toxic TLR4 activating ligands. The modulation of pro-inflammatory responses via the TLR4 signaling pathway was found beneficial for management of acute and chronic inflammatory disorders including asthma, allergy, arthritis, Alzheimer disease pathology, sepsis, and cancer. The TLR4/MD-2 complex can recognize the terminal motif of Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)—a glycophospholipid lipid A. Although immense progress in understanding the molecular basis of LPS-induced TLR4-mediated signaling has been achieved, gradual, and predictable TLR4 activation by structurally defined ligands has not yet been attained. We report on controllable modulation of cellular pro-inflammatory responses by application of novel synthetic glycolipids—disaccharide-based lipid A mimetics (DLAMs) having picomolar affinity for TLR4/MD-2. Using crystal structure inspired design we have developed endotoxin mimetics where the inherently flexible β(1 → 6)-linked diglucosamine backbone of lipid A is replaced by a conformationally restricted α,α-(1↔1)-linked disaccharide scaffold. The tertiary structure of the disaccharide skeleton of DLAMs mirrors the 3-dimensional shape of TLR4/MD-2 bound E. coli lipid A. Due to exceptional conformational rigidity of the sugar scaffold, the specific 3D organization of DLAM must be preserved upon interaction with proteins. These structural factors along with specific acylation and phosphorylation pattern can ensure picomolar affinity for TLR4 and permit efficient dimerization of TLR4/MD-2/DLAM complexes. Since the binding pose of lipid A in the binding pocket of MD-2 (±180°) is crucial for the expression of biological activity, the chemical structure of DLAMs was designed to permit a predefined binding orientation in the binding groove of MD-2, which ensured tailored and species-independent (human and mice) TLR4 activation. Manipulating phosphorylation and acylation pattern at the sugar moiety facing the secondary dimerization interface allowed for adjustable modulation of the TLR4-mediated signaling. Tailored modulation of cellular pro-inflammatory responses by distinct modifications of the molecular structure of DLAMs was attained in primary human and mouse immune cells, lung epithelial cells and TLR4 transfected HEK293 cells.

Characterizing moisture uptake and plasticization effects of water on amorphous amylose starch models using molecular dynamics methods

Dynamics and thermophysical properties of amorphous starch were explored using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Using the OPLS3e force field, simulations of short amylose chains in water were performed to determine force field accuracy. Using well-tempered metadynamics, a free energy map of the two glycosidic angles of an amylose molecule was constructed and compared with other modern force fields. Good agreement of torsional sampling for both solvated and amorphous amylose starch models was observed. Using combined grand canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC)/MD simulations, a moisture sorption isotherm curve is predicted along with temperature dependence. Concentration-dependent activation energies for water transport agree quantitatively with previous experiments. Finally, the plasticization effect of moisture content on amorphous starch was investigated. Predicted glass transition temperature (T_g) depression as a function of moisture content is in line with experimental trends. Further, our calculations provide a value for the dry T_g for amorphous starch, a value which no experimental value is available.

Comparison of Methods for Bulk Automated Simulation of Glycosidic Bond Conformations

Six empirical force fields were tested for applicability to calculations for automated carbohydrate database filling. They were probed on eleven disaccharide molecules containing representative structural features from widespread classes of carbohydrates. The accuracy of each method was queried by predictions of nuclear Overhauser effects (NOEs) from conformational ensembles obtained from 50 to 100 ns molecular dynamics (MD) trajectories and their comparison to the published experimental data. Using various ranking schemes, it was concluded that explicit solvent MM3 MD yielded non-inferior NOE accuracy with newer GLYCAM-06, and ultimately PBE0-D3/def2-TZVP (Triple-Zeta Valence Polarized) Density Functional Theory (DFT) simulations. For seven of eleven molecules, at least one empirical force field with explicit solvent outperformed DFT in NOE prediction. The aggregate of characteristics (accuracy, speed, and compatibility) made MM3 dynamics with explicit solvent at 300 K the most favorable method for bulk generation of disaccharide conformation maps for massive database filling.

Conformational Studies of Oligosaccharides

The conformation of a molecule strongly affects its function, as demonstrated for peptides and nucleic acids. This correlation is much less established for carbohydrates, the most abundant organic materials in nature. Recent advances in synthetic and analytical techniques have enabled the study of carbohydrates at the molecular level. Recurrent structural features were identified as responsible for particular biological activities or material properties. In this Minireview, recent achievements in the structural characterization of carbohydrates, enabled by systematic studies of chemically defined oligosaccharides, are discussed. These findings can guide the development of more potent glycomimetics. Synthetic carbohydrate materials by design can be envisioned.

Prunus amygdalus extract exert antidiabetic effect via inhibition of DPP-IV: in-silico and in-vivo approaches

Prunus amygdalus (PA) is a popular invasive seed utilized in the management of diabetes in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The objective of the current study was to scrutinize the antidiabetic effect of Prunus amygdalus (PA) against Streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats and explore the possible mechanism of action at cellular and sub-cellular levels. Box Benkan Design (BBD) was performed to determine the effect of PA powder to methanol, extraction time and extraction temperature on DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging activity of decoction. In-silico study was performed on GLUT1 (5EQG) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) (2G63) protein. Type II diabetes mellitus was initiated by single intra-peritoneal injection of STZ. The Blood Glucose Level (BGL) and body weight were estimated at regular interval of time. The different biochemical parameters such as hepatic, antioxidant, and lipid parameters were estimated. At end of the study, pancreas was used for histopathological observation. The variation in DPPH antiradical scavenging activity 40.0-90.0% and ABTS antiradical scavenging activity 34-82%, were estimated respectively. STZ induced DM rats showed increased BGL at end of the experimental study. PA treatment significantly (p < 0.001) down-regulated the BGL level. PA significantly (p < 0.001) altered the biochemical, hepatic and antioxidant parameters in a dose-dependent manner. Histopathological examination demonstrated the constructive mass of β-cells in pancreas. Overall, the current study indicates that the PA treatment down-regulated the hyperglycemic, oxidative stress and hyperlipidaemia in diabetic rats, due to inhibition of enzymes or amelioration of oxidative stress. [Formula: see text] Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Studies on qualitative and quantitative detection of trehalose purity by terahertz spectroscopy

Terahertz spectroscopy was used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze four samples (three brands) of trehalose produced in China and other countries. The results show that the main characteristic peak was greatly affected by concentration, and the optimal detection concentration of trehalose was determined to be 25%-55% by transmission scanning. There were six significant characteristic absorption peaks in the trehalose spectrum, meaning that terahertz spectroscopy can be used for qualitative analysis, analogous to infrared spectroscopy. Moreover, the terahertz spectrum can effectively distinguish the three isomers of trehalose, whereas infrared spectroscopy cannot. Thus, it was found that the current commercially available trehalose is the α,α-isomer. Quantitative analysis of the three brands of trehalose using terahertz spectroscopy matched the purity trends found by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, with the order of purity from highest to lowest being TREHA, Pioneer, and Huiyang. The actual quantitative values did differ between the two detection methods, but the variation in the values from the same sample obtained by the two detection methods was less than 5%, confirming that terahertz spectroscopy is very suitable for the rapid and relative quantitative detection of trehalose.

Investigating Conformational Dynamics of Lewis Y Oligosaccharides and Elucidating Blood Group Dependency of Cholera Using Molecular Dynamics

Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholerae and is an example of a blood-group-dependent disease. Recent studies suggest that the receptor-binding B subunit of the cholera toxin (CT) binds histo-blood group antigens at a secondary binding site. Herein, we studied the conformational dynamics of Lewis Y (Le^Y) oligosaccharides, H-tetrasaccharides and A-pentasaccharides, in aqueous solution by conducting accelerated molecular dynamics (aMD) simulations. The flexible nature of both oligosaccharides was displayed in aMD simulations. Furthermore, aMD simulations revealed that for both oligosaccharides in the free form, ⁴C₁ and ¹C₄ puckers were sampled for all but GalNAc monosaccharides, while either the ⁴C₁ (GlcNAc, Gal, GalNAc) or ¹C₄ (Fuc2, Fuc3) pucker was sampled in the CT-bound forms. In aMD, the complete transition from the ⁴C₁ to ¹C₄ pucker was sampled for GlcNAc and Gal in both oligosaccharides. Further, we have observed a transition from the open to closed conformer in the case of A-pentasaccharide, while H-tetrasaccharide remains in the open conformation throughout the simulation. Both oligosaccharides adopted an open conformation in the CT binding site. Moreover, we have investigated the molecular basis of recognition of Le^Y oligosaccharides by the B subunit of the cholera toxin of classical and El Tor biotypes using the molecular mechanics generalized Born surface area (MM/GBSA) scheme. The O blood group determinant, H-tetrasaccharide, exhibits a stronger affinity to both biotypes compared to the A blood group determinant, A-pentasaccharide, which agrees with the experimental data. The difference in binding free energy between O and A blood group determinants mainly arises due to the increased entropic cost and desolvation energy in the case of A-pentasaccharide compared to that of H-tetrasaccharide. Our study also reveals that the terminal Fuc3 contributes most to the binding free energy compared to other carbohydrate residues as it forms multiple hydrogen bonds with CT. Overall, our study might help in designing glycomimetic drugs targeting the cholera toxin.

Current Status of Carbohydrates Information in the Protein Data Bank

Carbohydrates are well known for their physicochemical, biological, functional, and therapeutic characteristics. Unfortunately, their chemical nature imposes severe challenges for the structural elucidation of these phenomena, impairing not only the depth of our understanding of carbohydrates but also the development of new biotechnological and therapeutic applications based on these molecules. In the recent past, the amount of structural information, obtained mainly from X-ray crystallography, has increased progressively, as well as its quality. In this context, the current work presents a global analysis of the carbohydrate information available in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). From high quality structures, it is clear that most of the data are highly concentrated on a few sets of residue types, on their monosaccharidic forms, and connected by a small diversity of glycosidic linkages. The geometries of these linkages can be mostly associated with the types of linkages instead of residues, while the level of puckering distortion was characterized, quantified, and located in a pseudorotational equilibrium landscape, not only to local minima but also to transitional states. These qualitative and quantitative analyses offer a global picture of the carbohydrate structural content in the PDB, potentially supporting the building of new models for carbohydrate-related biological phenomena at the atomistic level, including new developments on force field parameters.

Aqueous-Phase Conformations of Lactose, Maltose, and Sucrose and the Assessment of Low-Cost DFT Methods with the DSCONF Set of Conformers for the Three Disaccharides

In the present study, we have examined a range of quantum chemistry methods for the calculation of conformers for lactose, maltose, and sucrose. We find that the DSD-PBE-P86/aug'-cc-pVTZ//B3-LYP-D3BJ/6-311+G(2d,p) protocol yields good relative energies in comparison with reference CCSD(T)/CBS//B3-LYP-D3BJ/maug-cc-pVTZ values. We have surveyed a total of ∼550 conformers for the three disaccharides with the chosen DSD-PBE-P86 method in conjunction with continuum aqueous solvation. In each case, the lowest free energy conformer is characterized by hydrogen bond(s) between the two rings. Another finding is that the major contributors to the overall variations in aqueous free energies are the electronic energies and the solvation energies. To facilitate investigations of larger systems, we have compiled the DSCONF set of conformers for the three disaccharides, and we have assessed lower cost methods with this set. We find MS1-D3/6-31+G(2d,p) to be cost-effective and accurate for both geometry optimization and the calculation of relative energies for disaccharides. In addition, we note that MS1-D3 has previously been found to yield good relative energies for the WATER27 set of water clusters. We thus deem this method to be appropriate for the study of saccharide conformations in both gas phase and aqueous solution.

In-depth structural analysis of glycans in the gas phase

Although there have been substantial improvements in glycan analysis over the past decade, the lack of both high-resolution and high-throughput methods hampers progress in glycomics. This perspective article highlights the current developments of liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, ion-mobility spectrometry and cryogenic IR spectroscopy for glycan analysis and gives a critical insight to their individual strengths and limitations. Moreover, we discuss a novel concept in which ion mobility-mass spectrometry and cryogenic IR spectroscopy is combined in a single instrument such that datasets consisting of m/z, collision cross sections and IR fingerprints can be obtained. This multidimensional data will then be compared to a comprehensive reference library of intact glycans and their fragments to accurately identify unknown glycans on a high-throughput scale with minimal sample requirements. Due to the complementarity of the obtained information, this novel approach is highly diagnostic and also suitable for the identification of larger glycans; however, the workflow and instrumentation is straightforward enough to be implemented into a user-friendly setup.

Stereochemistry and glycosidic linkages of C3-glycosylations affected the reactivity of cyanidin derivatives

The impact of glycosylation on anthocyanin stability has largely been associated with sugar type, site, and size, with glycosyl stereochemistry being under-explored. Seven cyanidin-3-glycosides were isolated by HPLC, diluted in pH 1-9, mixed with bisulfite or ascorbic acid at pH 3, and stored for 8 weeks (25 °C, dark). Spectral changes, half-lives, and bleaching rates were determined. Cyanidin-3-galactoside was more reactive (susceptible to hydration and bleaching) than cyanidin-3-glucoside. The 1 → 2 disaccharides exhibited greater λ_vis-max (≤16 nm), resistance to hydration, and bleaching compared to 1 → 6 disaccharides.The 1 → 6 disaccharides had similar λ_vis-max (∼2 nm) to the monosaccharides but slightly improved resistance to hydration and bleaching. The tri-glycosylated anthocyanin had the greatest stability and its spectral and bleaching characteristics was intermediate to 1 → 2 and 1 → 6 disaccharides. The 1 → 2 disaccharides generally exhibited lower half-lives compared to monosaccharides; whereas, 1 → 6 disaccharides exhibited higher stability. These findings highlight the role of glycosyl assembly on anthocyanin reactivity and stability.

Predicting the Structures of Glycans, Glycoproteins, and Their Complexes

Complex carbohydrates are ubiquitous in nature, and together with proteins and nucleic acids they comprise the building blocks of life. But unlike proteins and nucleic acids, carbohydrates form nonlinear polymers, and they are not characterized by robust secondary or tertiary structures but rather by distributions of well-defined conformational states. Their molecular flexibility means that oligosaccharides are often refractory to crystallization, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy augmented by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is the leading method for their characterization in solution. The biological importance of carbohydrate-protein interactions, in organismal development as well as in disease, places urgency on the creation of innovative experimental and theoretical methods that can predict the specificity of such interactions and quantify their strengths. Additionally, the emerging realization that protein glycosylation impacts protein function and immunogenicity places the ability to define the mechanisms by which glycosylation impacts these features at the forefront of carbohydrate modeling. This review will discuss the relevant theoretical approaches to studying the three-dimensional structures of this fascinating class of molecules and interactions, with reference to the relevant experimental data and techniques that are key for validation of the theoretical predictions.

Paradoxical Effect of Trehalose on the Aggregation of α-Synuclein: Expedites Onset of Aggregation yet Reduces Fibril Load

Aggregation of α-synuclein is closely connected to the pathology of Parkinson's disease. The phenomenon involves multiple steps, commenced by partial misfolding and eventually leading to mature amyloid fibril formation. Trehalose, a widely accepted osmolyte, has been shown previously to inhibit aggregation of various globular proteins owing to its ability to prevent the initial unfolding of protein. In this study, we have examined if it behaves in a similar fashion with intrinsically disordered protein α-synuclein and possesses the potential to act as therapeutic agent against Parkinson's disease. It was observed experimentally that samples coincubated with trehalose fibrillate faster compared to the case in its absence. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that this initial acceleration is manifestation of trehalose's tendency to perturb the conformational transitions between different conformers of monomeric protein. It stabilizes the aggregation prone "extended" conformer of α-synuclein, by binding to its exposed acidic residues of the C terminus. It also favors the β-rich oligomers once formed. Interestingly, the total fibrils formed are still promisingly less since it accelerates the competing pathway toward formation of amorphous aggregates.

Dissecting the conformational determinants of chitosan and chitlac oligomers

Chitosan and its highly hydrophilic 1-deoxy-lactit-1-yl derivative (Chitlac) are polysaccharides with increasing biomedical applications. Aimed to unravel their conformational properties we have performed a series of molecular dynamics simulations of Chitosan/Chitlac decamers, exploring different degrees of substitution (DS) of lactitol side chains. At low DS, two conformational regions with different populations are visited, while for DS ≥ 20% the oligomers remain mostly linear and only one main region of the glycosidic angles is sampled. These conformers are (locally) characterized by extended helical "propensities". Helical conformations 3₂ and 2_1, by far the most abundant, only develop in the main region. The accessible conformational space is clearly enlarged at high ionic strength, evidencing also a new region accessible to the glycosidic angles, with short and frequent interchange between regions. Simulations of neutral decamers share these features, pointing to a central role of electrostatic repulsion between charged moieties. These interactions seem to determine the conformational behavior of the chitosan backbone, with no evident influence of H-bond interactions. Finally, it is also shown that increasing temperature only slightly enlarges the available conformational space, but certainly without signs of a temperature-induced conformational transition.

Structural and thermodynamic insights into β-1,2-glucooligosaccharide capture by a solute-binding protein in Listeria innocua

β-1,2-Glucans are bacterial carbohydrates that exist in cyclic or linear forms and play an important role in infections and symbioses involving Gram-negative bacteria. Although several β-1,2-glucan-associated enzymes have been characterized, little is known about how β-1,2-glucan and its shorter oligosaccharides (Sop _n s) are captured and imported into the bacterial cell. Here, we report the biochemical and structural characteristics of the Sop _n -binding protein (SO-BP, Lin1841) associated with the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter from the Gram-positive bacterium Listeria innocua Calorimetric analysis revealed that SO-BP specifically binds to Sop _n s with a degree of polymerization of 3 or more, with K_d values in the micromolar range. The crystal structures of SO-BP in an unliganded open form and in closed complexes with tri-, tetra-, and pentaoligosaccharides (Sop_3-5) were determined to a maximum resolution of 1.6 Å. The binding site displayed shape complementarity to Sop _n , which adopted a zigzag conformation. We noted that water-mediated hydrogen bonds and stacking interactions play a pivotal role in the recognition of Sop_3-5 by SO-BP, consistent with its binding thermodynamics. Computational free-energy calculations and a mutational analysis confirmed that interactions with the third glucose moiety of Sop _n s are significantly responsible for ligand binding. A reduction in unfavorable changes in binding entropy that were in proportion to the lengths of the Sop _n s was explained by conformational entropy changes. Phylogenetic and sequence analyses indicated that SO-BP ABC transporter homologs, glycoside hydrolases, and other related proteins are co-localized in the genomes of several bacteria. This study may improve our understanding of bacterial β-1,2-glucan metabolism and promote the discovery of unidentified β-1,2-glucan-associated proteins.

Influence of cyanidin glycosylation patterns on carboxypyranoanthocyanin formation

Anthocyanins can condense with compounds having enolizable groups to form pyranoanthocyanins. These pigments are less susceptible to degradation and color changes associated with nucleophilic addition common to anthocyanins. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of glycosylation patterns of anthocyanins on carboxypyranoanthocyanin formation. Nine cyanidin derivatives were isolated by semi-preparative HPLC. Pyruvic acid was added to induce pyranoanthocyanin formation. Composition (HPLC-MS/MS), spectra (absorbance 380-700 nm), and color (CIEL*c*h*) of solutions were monitored during 31 days storage at 25 °C. Cyanidin-3-glycosides with 1 → 6 disaccharides produced the highest pyranoanthocyanin yield (∼31%), followed by Cyanidin-3-monoglycosides (∼20%); 1 → 2 disaccharides produced the least proportions of pyranoanthocyanins (5-7%). Cyanidin-3-arabinoside converted to pyranoanthocyanins but degraded quickly (3% yield) under these conditions. No pyranoanthocyanins were formed from Cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside. Glycosyl bonds were more critical than the size of the substitution alone, further supported by Cyanidin-3-(glucosyl)-(1 → 6)-(xylosyl-(1 → 2)-galactoside) yield (11%). Pyranoanthocyanins were hypsochromically shifted and had higher hue angles than their respective anthocyanins.

Identification of Rare Lewis Oligosaccharide Conformers in Aqueous Solution Using Enhanced Sampling Molecular Dynamics

Determining the conformations accessible to carbohydrate ligands in aqueous solution is important for understanding their biological action. In this work, we evaluate the conformational free-energy surfaces of Lewis oligosaccharides in explicit aqueous solvent using a multidimensional variant of the swarm-enhanced sampling molecular dynamics (msesMD) method; we compare with multi-microsecond unbiased MD simulations, umbrella sampling, and accelerated MD approaches. For the sialyl Lewis A tetrasaccharide, msesMD simulations in aqueous solution predict conformer landscapes in general agreement with the other biased methods and with triplicate unbiased 10 μs trajectories; these simulations find a predominance of closed conformer and a range of low-occupancy open forms. The msesMD simulations also suggest closed-to-open transitions in the tetrasaccharide are facilitated by changes in ring puckering of its GlcNAc residue away from the ⁴C₁ form, in line with previous work. For sialyl Lewis X tetrasaccharide, msesMD simulations predict a minor population of an open form in solution corresponding to a rare lectin-bound pose observed crystallographically. Overall, from comparison with biased MD calculations, we find that triplicate 10 μs unbiased MD simulations may not be enough to fully sample glycan conformations in aqueous solution. However, the computational efficiency and intuitive approach of the msesMD method suggest potential for its application in glycomics as a tool for analysis of oligosaccharide conformation.

Inhibition of GNNQQNY prion peptide aggregation by trehalose: a mechanistic view

Deposition of amyloid fibrils is the seminal event in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative diseases. The formation of this amyloid assembly is the manifestation of a cascade of structural transitions including toxic oligomer formation in the early stages of aggregation. Thus a viable therapeutic strategy involves the use of small molecular ligands to interfere with this assembly. In this perspective, we have explored the kinetics of aggregate formation of the fibril forming GNNQQNY peptide fragment from the yeast prion protein SUP35 using multiple all atom MD simulations with explicit solvent and provided mechanistic insights into the way trehalose, an experimentally known aggregation inhibitor, modulates the aggregation pathway. The results suggest that the assimilation process is impeded by different barriers at smaller and larger oligomeric sizes: the initial one being easily surpassed at higher temperatures and peptide concentrations. The kinetic profile demonstrates that trehalose delays the aggregation process by increasing both these activation barriers, specifically the latter one. It increases the sampling of small-sized aggregates that lack the beta sheet conformation. Analysis reveals that the barrier in the growth of larger stable oligomers causes the formation of multiple stable small oligomers which then fuse together bimolecularly. The PCA of 26 properties was carried out to deconvolute the events within the temporary lag phases, which suggested dynamism in lags involving an increase in interchain contacts and burial of SASA. The predominant growth route is monomer addition, which changes to condensation on account of a large number of depolymerisation events in the presence of trehalose. The favourable interaction of trehalose specifically with the sidechain of the peptide promotes crowding of trehalose molecules in its vicinity - the combination of both these factors imparts the observed behaviour. Furthermore, increasing trehalose concentration leads to faster expulsion of water molecules than interpeptide interactions. These expelled water molecules have larger translational movement, suggesting an entropy factor to favor the assembly process. Different conformations observed under this condition suggest the role of water molecules in guiding the morphology of the aggregates as well. A similar scenario exists on increasing peptide concentration.

Physicochemical Aspects of the Biological Functions of Trehalose and Group 3 LEA Proteins as Desiccation Protectants

In this review, we first focus on the mechanism by which the larva of the sleeping chironomid, Polypedilum vanderplanki, survives an extremely dehydrated state and describe how trehalose and probably late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins work as desiccation protectants. Second, we summarize the solid-state and solution properties of trehalose and discuss why trehalose works better than other disaccharides as a desiccation protectant. Third, we describe the structure and function of two model peptides based on group 3 LEA proteins after a short introduction of native LEA proteins themselves. Finally, we present our conclusions and a perspective on the application of trehalose and LEA model peptides to the long-term storage of biological materials.

Function and structure relationships of a β-1,2-glucooligosaccharide-degrading β-glucosidase

BT_3567 protein, a putative β-glucosidase from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, exhibits higher activity toward Sop_3-5 (Sop_n , n: degree of polymerization of β-1,2-glucooligosaccharides) than toward Sop₂ , unlike a known β-glucosidase from Listeria innocua which predominantly prefers Sop₂ . In the complex structure determined by soaking of a D286N mutant crystal with Sop₄ , a Sop₃ moiety was observed at subsites -1 to +2. The glucose moiety at subsite +2 forms a hydrogen bond with Asn81, which is replaced with Gly in the L. innocua β-glucosidase. The K_m values of the N81G mutant for Sop_3-5 are much higher than those of the wild-type, suggesting that Asn81 contributes to the binding to substrates longer than Sop₃ .

Modeling of Oligosaccharides within Glycoproteins from Free-Energy Landscapes

In spite of the abundance of glycoproteins in biological processes, relatively little three-dimensional structural data is available for glycan structures. Here, we study the structure and flexibility of the vast majority of mammalian oligosaccharides appearing in N- and O-glycosylated proteins using a bottom up approach. We report the conformational free-energy landscapes of all relevant glycosidic linkages as obtained from local elevation simulations and subsequent umbrella sampling. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first complete conformational library for the construction of N- and O-glycan structures. Next, we systematically study the effect of neighboring residues, by extensively simulating all relevant trisaccharides and one tetrasaccharide. This allows for an unprecedented comparison of disaccharide linkages in large oligosaccharides. With a small number of exceptions, the conformational preferences in the larger structures are very similar as in the disaccharides. This, finally, allows us to suggest several efficient approaches to construct complete N- and O-glycans on glycoproteins, as exemplified on two relevant examples.

Mechanistic insight into the substrate specificity of 1,2-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase from Lachnoclostridium phytofermentans

Glycoside phosphorylases catalyze the phosphorolysis of oligosaccharides into sugar phosphates. Recently, we found a novel phosphorylase acting on β-1,2-glucooligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization of 3 or more (1,2-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase, SOGP) in glycoside hydrolase family (GH) 94. Here, we characterized SOGP from Lachnoclostridium phytofermentans (LpSOGP) and determined its crystal structure. LpSOGP is a monomeric enzyme that contains a unique β-sandwich domain (Ndom1) at its N-terminus. Unlike the dimeric GH94 enzymes possessing catalytic pockets at their dimer interface, LpSOGP has a catalytic pocket between Ndom1 and the catalytic domain. In the complex structure of LpSOGP with sophorose, sophorose binds at subsites +1 to +2. Notably, the Glc moiety at subsite +1 is flipped compared with the corresponding ligands in other GH94 enzymes. This inversion suggests the great distortion of the glycosidic bond between subsites −1 and +1, which is likely unfavorable for substrate binding. Compensation for this disadvantage at subsite +2 can be accounted for by the small distortion of the glycosidic bond in the sophorose molecule. Therefore, the binding mode at subsites +1 and +2 defines the substrate specificity of LpSOGP, which provides mechanistic insights into the substrate specificity of a phosphorylase acting on β-1,2-glucooligosaccharides.

Imprinting of Stöber particles for chirally-resolved adsorption of target monosaccharides and disaccharides

Soft imprinting of silica particles using sugar surfactants targets chirally resolved binding of saccharides.