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Takei Y. Metabolic Water As a Route for Water Acquisition in Vertebrates Inhabiting Dehydrating Environments. Zoolog Sci 2024; 41:132-139. [PMID: 38587526 DOI: 10.2108/zs230085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Vertebrates have expanded their habitats during evolution, which accompanies diversified routes for water acquisition. Water is acquired by oral intake and subsequent absorption by the intestine in terrestrial and marine animals which are subjected to constant dehydration, whereas most water is gained osmotically across body surfaces in freshwater animals. In addition, a significant amount of water, called metabolic water, is produced within the body by the oxidation of hydrogen in organic substrates. The importance of metabolic water production as a strategy for water acquisition has been well documented in desert animals, but its role has attracted little attention in marine animals which also live in a dehydrating environment. In this article, the author has attempted to reevaluate the role of metabolic water production in body fluid regulation in animals inhabiting desiccating environments. Because of the exceptional ability of their kidney, marine mammals are thought to typically gain water by drinking environmental seawater and excreting excess NaCl in the urine. On the other hand, it is established that marine teleosts drink seawater to enable intestinal water and ion absorption, and the excess NaCl is excreted by branchial ionocytes. In addition to the oral route, we suggest through experiments using eels that water production by lipid metabolism is an additional route for water acquisition when they encounter seawater. It seems that metabolic water production contributes to counteract dehydration before mechanisms for water regulation are reversed from excretion in freshwater to acquisition in seawater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Takei
- Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8564, Japan,
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Rodrigues K, Batista-Silva H, de Moura KRS, Van Der Kraak G, Silva FRMB. Dibutyl phthalate disrupts energy metabolism and morphology in the gills and induces hepatotoxicity in zebrafish. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2023; 49:883-893. [PMID: 37537493 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-023-01227-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the acute effects of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) exposure on energy metabolism and gill histology in zebrafish (Danio rerio). The in vitro incubation of gill tissue with 10 μM DBP for 60 min altered tissue energy supply, as shown by decreased lactate content and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity. Higher concentrations of DBP (100 μM and 1 mM) increased lactate content and LDH activity; however, they blocked glucose uptake, depleted the glycogen content in cellular stores, and induced injury to the gills, as measured by LDH release to the extracellular medium. In addition, in vivo exposure of fish to 1 pM DBP for 12 h induced liver damage by increasing alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities. Gill histology indicated hyperemia, lamellar fusion, lamellar telangiectasis, and necrosis. Data indicate that acute exposure of zebrafish gills to the higher DBP concentrations studied induces anaerobic cellular activity and high lactate production, causing gill damage, diminishing cell viability, and incurring liver dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keyla Rodrigues
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Rua João Pio Duarte Silva, 241, Córrego Grande, CEP, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Hemily Batista-Silva
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Rua João Pio Duarte Silva, 241, Córrego Grande, CEP, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Kieiv Resende Sousa de Moura
- Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Glen Van Der Kraak
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Fátima Regina Mena Barreto Silva
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Rua João Pio Duarte Silva, 241, Córrego Grande, CEP, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil.
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3
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Li Y, Ye Y, Li W, Liu X, Zhao Y, Jiang Q, Che X. Effects of Salinity Stress on Histological Changes, Glucose Metabolism Index and Transcriptomic Profile in Freshwater Shrimp, Macrobrachium nipponense. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2884. [PMID: 37760284 PMCID: PMC10525465 DOI: 10.3390/ani13182884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Salinity is an important factor in the aquatic environment and affects the ion homeostasis and physiological activities of crustaceans. Macrobrachium nipponense is a shrimp that mainly lives in fresh and low-salt waters and plays a huge economic role in China's shrimp market. Currently, there are only a few studies on the effects of salinity on M. nipponense. Therefore, it is of particular importance to study the molecular responses of M. nipponense to salinity fluctuations. In this study, M. nipponense was set at salinities of 0, 8, 14 and 22‱ for 6 weeks. The gills from the control (0‱) and isotonic groups (14‱) were used for RNA extraction and transcriptome analysis. In total, 593 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, of which 282 were up-regulated and 311 were down-regulated. The most abundant gill transcripts responding to different salinity levels based on GO classification were organelle membrane (cellular component), creatine transmembrane transporter activity (molecular function) and creatine transmembrane transport (biological function). KEGG analysis showed that the most enriched and significantly affected pathways included AMPK signaling, lysosome and cytochrome P450. In addition, 15 DEGs were selected for qRT-PCR verification, which were mainly related to ion homeostasis, glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism. The results showed that the expression patterns of these genes were similar to the high-throughput data. Compared with the control group, high salinity caused obvious injury to gill tissue, mainly manifested as contraction and relaxation of gill filament, cavity vacuolation and severe epithelial disintegration. Glucose-metabolism-related enzyme activities (e.g., pyruvate kinase, hexokinase, 6-phosphate fructose kinase) and related-gene expression (e.g., hexokinase, pyruvate kinase, 6-phosphate fructose kinase) in the gills were significantly higher at a salinity of 14‱. This study showed that salinity stress activated ion transport channels and promoted an up-regulated level of glucose metabolism. High salinity levels caused damage to the gill tissue of M. nipponense. Overall, these results improved our understanding of the salt tolerance mechanism of M. nipponense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Li
- Fishery Machinery and Instrument Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences, Shanghai 200092, China; (Y.L.); (X.L.)
| | - Yucong Ye
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Wen Li
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Xingguo Liu
- Fishery Machinery and Instrument Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences, Shanghai 200092, China; (Y.L.); (X.L.)
| | - Yunlong Zhao
- School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Qichen Jiang
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210017, China;
| | - Xuan Che
- Fishery Machinery and Instrument Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences, Shanghai 200092, China; (Y.L.); (X.L.)
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Kokkali M, Sveen L, Larsson T, Krasnov A, Giakovakis A, Sweetman J, Lyons P, Kousoulaki K. Optimisation of trace mineral supplementation in diets for Atlantic salmon smolt with reference to holistic fish performance in terms of growth, health, welfare, and potential environmental impacts. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1214987. [PMID: 37664428 PMCID: PMC10469859 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1214987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The aquafeed ingredient inventory is ever changing, from marine to plant based, and recently evolving to incorporate increasing amounts of low trophic, side stream and circular economy based raw materials, each one contributing with variable amounts and qualities of macro- and micronutrients. Meeting the micronutrient requirement of farmed fish for healthy and efficient growth under normal and challenging conditions is of paramount importance. In this study we run a trial based on a 2 × 4 factorial design with three replications for each dietary treatment, where Atlantic salmon smolt were fed one of 8 experimental diets supplemented with either organic or inorganic mineral premixes (copper, iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc) at four dietary inclusion levels. We saw a trend for higher growth rate in the organic mineral groups irrespective of the dietary mineral levels. Mineral digestibility was negatively correlated with increasing mineral supplementation levels for all tested minerals but Se which increased with the increasing supplementation in the inorganic and up to the 2nd inclusion level in the organic mineral groups. Increasing mineral supplementation affected retention efficiency of Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe while mineral source affected only the retention of Se which was higher in the organic mineral groups. Moreover, fish obtained higher EPA and DHA in their body and increased slaughter yield in the organic as compared to the inorganic mineral groups and corroborated that trace mineral inclusion levels play a key role on salmon fillet's technical quality. More effects from different origin and dietary inclusion levels of trace minerals were seen on fillet yield, fillet technical and nutritional quality, bone strength, skin morphology, organ mineralization and midgut transcriptome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lene Sveen
- Department of Fish Health, Nofima, Ås, Norway
| | - Thomas Larsson
- Department of Nutrition and Feed Technology, Nofima, Bergen, Norway
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Su H, Ma D, Fan J, Zhong Z, Li Y, Zhu H. Metabolism response mechanism in the gill of Oreochromis mossambicus under salinity, alkalinity and saline-alkalinity stresses. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 251:114523. [PMID: 36638565 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Saline-alkalinity is one of the important ecological parameter that has an impact function on the physiological metabolism, osmoregulation, survival, growth, development and distribution of teleost fish. Oreochromis mossambicus, a species of euryhaline that can withstand a wide variety of salinities, may be used as a research model animal in environmental studies. In order to detect the metabolism responses and mechanisms of different osmotic stresses tolerance in the gills of O. mossambicus, in present study, the metabolic responses of O. mossambicus subjected to salinity (25 g/L, S_S), alkalinity (4 g/L, A_S) and saline-alkalinity stress (salinity: 25 g/L, alkalinity: 4 g/L; SA_S) with the control environment (freshwater, C_S) were investigated by LC-MS/MS-based metabolomics. The metabolism results indicated that numerous metabolites were identified between the stress groups and the control group. In addition, under three osmotic stresses, the amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, levels of amino acids, osmolytes and energy substances, such as L-lysine, arachidonic acid, docosahexaenoic acids, creatine and taurine, were significantly affected and changed in the metabolism of the gills of O. mossambicus. The metabolism data indicated that signal transduction and regulation pathways, including FoxO signaling pathway, mTOR signaling pathway and prolactin signaling pathway, were enriched in the gill during adaptation to high salinity, alkalinity and saline-alkalinity stress. The results of this study provide more comprehensive and reliable data for the osmotic pressure regulation mechanism and biological response of euryhaline teleost, and provide reliable scientific basis for the breeding and research of high salinity tolerance population, and further promote the development and utilization of saline-alkalinity water resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Su
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China; Shanghai Ocean University, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Dongmei Ma
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou 510380, China
| | - Jiajia Fan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou 510380, China
| | - Zaixuan Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China
| | - Yaya Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China; Shanghai Ocean University, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Huaping Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fishery Resource Application and Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Science, Guangzhou 510380, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Guangzhou 510380, China.
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6
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Su M, Liu N, Zhang Z, Zhang J. Osmoregulatory strategies of estuarine fish Scatophagus argus in response to environmental salinity changes. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:545. [PMID: 35907798 PMCID: PMC9339187 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08784-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Scatophagus argus, an estuarine inhabitant, can rapidly adapt to different salinity environments. However, the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying its strong salinity tolerance remains unclear. The gill, as the main osmoregulatory organ, plays a vital role in the salinity adaptation of the fish, and thus relative studies are constructive to reveal unique osmoregulatory mechanisms in S. argus. RESULTS In the present study, iTRAQ coupled with nanoLC-MS/MS techniques were employed to explore branchial osmoregulatory mechanisms in S. argus acclimated to different salinities. Among 1,604 identified proteins, 796 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were detected. To further assess osmoregulatory strategies in the gills under different salinities, DEPs related to osmoregulatory (22), non-directional (18), hypo- (52), and hypersaline (40) stress responses were selected. Functional annotation analysis of these selected DEPs indicated that the cellular ion regulation (e.g. Na+-K+-ATPase [NKA] and Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter 1 [NKCC1]) and ATP synthesis were deeply involved in the osmoregulatory process. As an osmoregulatory protein, NKCC1 expression was inhibited under hyposaline stress but showed the opposite trend in hypersaline conditions. The expression levels of NKA α1 and β1 were only increased under hypersaline challenge. However, hyposaline treatments could enhance branchial NKA activity, which was inhibited under hypersaline environments, and correspondingly, reduced ATP content was observed in gill tissues exposed to hyposaline conditions, while its contents were increased in hypersaline groups. In vitro experiments indicated that Na+, K+, and Cl- ions were pumped out of branchial cells under hypoosmotic stress, whereas they were absorbed into cells under hyperosmotic conditions. Based on our results, we speculated that NKCC1-mediated Na+ influx was inhibited, and proper Na+ efflux was maintained by improving NKA activity under hyposaline stress, promoting the rapid adaptation of branchial cells to the hyposaline condition. Meanwhile, branchial cells prevented excessive loss of ions by increasing NKA internalization and reducing ATP synthesis. In contrast, excess ions in cells exposed to the hyperosmotic medium were excreted with sufficient energy supply, and reduced NKA activity and enhanced NKCC1-mediated Na+ influx were considered a compensatory regulation. CONCLUSIONS S. argus exhibited divergent osmoregulatory strategies in the gills when encountering hypoosmotic and hyperosmotic stresses, facilitating effective adaptabilities to a wide range of environmental salinity fluctuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maoliang Su
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource & Eco-Environmental Science, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Nanxi Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource & Eco-Environmental Science, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Zhengqi Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource & Eco-Environmental Science, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Junbin Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource & Eco-Environmental Science, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China.
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Inokuchi M, Yamaguchi Y, Moorman BP, Seale AP. Age-Dependent Decline in Salinity Tolerance in a Euryhaline Fish. FRONTIERS IN AGING 2022; 2:675395. [PMID: 35822031 PMCID: PMC9261306 DOI: 10.3389/fragi.2021.675395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Euryhaline teleost fish are characterized by their ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental salinities by modifying the function of osmoregulatory cells and tissues. In this study, we experimentally addressed the age-related decline in the sensitivity of osmoregulatory transcripts associated with a transfer from fresh water (FW) to seawater (SW) in the euryhaline teleost, Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. The survival rates of tilapia transferred from FW to SW were inversely related with age, indicating that older fish require a longer acclimation period during a salinity challenge. The relative expression of Na+/K+/2Cl− cotransporter 1a (nkcc1a), which plays an important role in hyposmoregulation, was significantly upregulated in younger fish after SW transfer, indicating a clear effect of age in the sensitivity of branchial ionocytes. Prolactin (Prl), a hyperosmoregulatory hormone in O. mossambicus, is released in direct response to a fall in extracellular osmolality. Prl cells of 4-month-old tilapia were sensitive to hyposmotic stimuli, while those of >24-month-old fish did not respond. Moreover, the responsiveness of branchial ionocytes to Prl was more robust in younger fish. Taken together, multiple aspects of osmotic homeostasis, from osmoreception to hormonal and environmental control of osmoregulation, declined in older fish. This decline appears to undermine the ability of older fish to survive transfer to hyperosmotic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Inokuchi
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoko Yamaguchi
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Benjamin P Moorman
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i, Kaneohe, HI, United States
| | - Andre P Seale
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i, Kaneohe, HI, United States.,Department of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
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Seale LA, Gilman CL, Zavacki AM, Larsen PR, Inokuchi M, Breves JP, Seale AP. Regulation of thyroid hormones and branchial iodothyronine deiodinases during freshwater acclimation in tilapia. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 538:111450. [PMID: 34506867 PMCID: PMC8551029 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Euryhaline fishes are capable of maintaining osmotic homeostasis in a wide range of environmental salinities. Several pleiotropic hormones, including prolactin, growth hormone, and thyroid hormones (THs) are mediators of salinity acclimation. It is unclear, however, the extent to which THs and the pituitary-thyroid axis promote the adaptive responses of key osmoregulatory organs to freshwater (FW) environments. In the current study, we characterized circulating thyroxine (T4) and 3-3'-5-triiodothyronine (T3) levels in parallel with the outer ring deiodination (ORD) activities of deiodinases (dios) and mRNA expression of dio1, dio2, and dio3 in gill during the acclimation of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) to FW. Tilapia transferred from seawater (SW) to FW exhibited reduced plasma T4 and T3 levels at 6 h. These reductions coincided with an increase in branchial dio2-like activity and decreased branchial dio1 gene expression. To assess whether dios respond to osmotic conditions and/or systemic signals, gill filaments were exposed to osmolalities ranging from 280 to 450 mOsm/kg in an in vitro incubation system. Gene expression of branchial dio1, dio2, and dio3 was not directly affected by extracellular osmotic conditions. Lastly, we observed that dio1 and dio2 expression was stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone in hypophysectomized tilapia, suggesting that branchial TH metabolism is regulated by systemic signals. Our collective findings suggest that THs are involved in the FW acclimation of Mozambique tilapia through their interactions with branchial deiodinases that modulate their activities in a key osmoregulatory organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia A Seale
- Pacific Biosciences Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 1933 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Christy L Gilman
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 651 Ilalo Street, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Ann Marie Zavacki
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - P Reed Larsen
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mayu Inokuchi
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Jason P Breves
- Department of Biology, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY, 12866, USA
| | - Andre P Seale
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 1955 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
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Parker JJ, Zimmer AM, Perry SF. Respirometry and cutaneous oxygen flux measurements reveal a negligible aerobic cost of ion regulation in larval zebrafish ( Danio rerio). J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb226753. [PMID: 32709624 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.226753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Fishes living in fresh water counter the passive loss of salts by actively absorbing ions through specialized cells termed ionocytes. Ionocytes contain ATP-dependent transporters and are enriched with mitochondria; therefore ionic regulation is an energy-consuming process. The purpose of this study was to assess the aerobic costs of ion transport in larval zebrafish (Danio rerio). We hypothesized that changes in rates of Na+ uptake evoked by acidic or low Na+ rearing conditions would result in corresponding changes in whole-body oxygen consumption (ṀO2 ) and/or cutaneous oxygen flux (JO2 ), measured at the ionocyte-expressing yolk sac epithelium using the scanning micro-optrode technique (SMOT). Larvae at 4 days post-fertilization (dpf) that were reared under low pH (pH 4) conditions exhibited a higher rate of Na+ uptake compared with fish reared under control conditions (pH 7.6), yet they displayed a lower ṀO2 and no difference in cutaneous JO2 Despite a higher Na+ uptake capacity in larvae reared under low Na+ conditions, there were no differences in ṀO2 and JO2 at 4 dpf. Furthermore, although Na+ uptake was nearly abolished in 2 dpf larvae lacking ionocytes after morpholino knockdown of the ionocyte proliferation regulating transcription factor foxi3a, ṀO2 and JO2 were unaffected. Finally, laser ablation of ionocytes did not affect cutaneous JO2 Thus, we conclude that the aerobic costs of ion uptake by ionocytes in larval zebrafish, at least in the case of Na+, are below detection using whole-body respirometry or cutaneous SMOT scans, providing evidence that ion regulation in zebrafish larvae incurs a low aerobic cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian J Parker
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Alex M Zimmer
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Steve F Perry
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
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Guo T, Yang Y, Meng F, Wang S, Xia S, Qian Y, Li M, Wang R. Effects of low salinity on gill and liver glycogen metabolism of great blue-spotted mudskippers (Boleophthalmus pectinirostris). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 230:108709. [PMID: 31954198 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of low salinity exposure on glycogen and its metabolism biomarkers, glycogen synthase (GS) and glycogen phosphorylase (GP), representing glycogen synthesis and catabolism, respectively, in the gills and liver of great blue-spotted mudskippers (Boleophthalmus pectinirostris). The fish were accumulated at 10‰ salinity seawater for 1 week, then 270 healthy great blue-spotted mudskippers with similar size were randomly transferred to 10‰ (control group) or 3‰ (low salinity group) seawater for 72-hour stress experiment. Fish significantly elevated their blood glucose levels 12 h after low salinity challenge. At the end of experiments, a decrease in liver glycogen contents was observed in both the control and low salinity groups, the latter showing a pronounced decrease, while the gill glycogen contents were not changed for either group. The mRNA abundance and enzyme activity of GS and GP were both elevated in gill tissues, showing a rising glycogen synthesis and catabolism, probably resulting in the unchanging gill glycogen content. While in liver tissues, the mRNA abundance and enzyme activity were decreased for GS and increased for GP, showing a net increase for breaking down glycogen in liver, probably for supplying a sufficient glucose level for gills and other tissues/organs involved in the response to salinity changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Guo
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Fanxing Meng
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China.
| | - Shidong Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Silei Xia
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Yunxia Qian
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Ming Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Rixin Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China.
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Ern R, Esbaugh AJ. Effects of salinity and hypoxia-induced hyperventilation on oxygen consumption and cost of osmoregulation in the estuarine red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus). Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2018; 222:52-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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12
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Hu YC, Chung MH, Lee TH. An assay of optimal cytochrome c oxidase activity in fish gills. Anal Biochem 2018; 553:38-45. [PMID: 29787731 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2018.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome c oxidase (COX) catalyzes the terminal oxidation reaction in the electron transport chain (ETC) of aerobic respiratory systems. COX activity is an important indicator for the evaluation of energy production by aerobic respiration in various tissues. On the basis of the respiratory characteristics of muscle, we established an optimal method for the measurement of maximal COX activity. To validate the measurement of cytochrome c absorbance, different ionic buffer concentrations and tissue homogenate protein concentrations were used to investigate COX activity. The results showed that optimal COX activity is achieved when using 50-100 μg fish gill homogenate in conjunction with 75-100 mM potassium phosphate buffer. Furthermore, we compared branchial COX activities among three species of euryhaline teleost (Chanos chanos, Oreochromis mossambicus, and Oryzias dancena) to investigate differences in aerobic respiration of osmoregulatory organs. COX activities in the gills of these three euryhaline species were compared with COX subunit 4 (COX4) protein levels. COX4 protein abundance and COX activity patterns in the three species occurring in environments with various salinities increased when fish encountered salinity challenges. This COX activity assay therefore provides an effective and accurate means of assessing aerobic metabolism in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yau-Chung Hu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Han Chung
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Han Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan; The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 402, Taiwan.
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13
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Caxico Vieira CAS, Vieira JS, Bastos MS, Zancanela V, Barbosa LT, Gasparino E, Del Vesco AP. Expression of genes related to antioxidant activity in Nile tilapia kept under salinity stress and fed diets containing different levels of vitamin C. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2017; 81:20-30. [PMID: 29173066 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1401968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine whether (1) severe changes in salinity produced increased stress, and (2) vitamin C supplementation might reduce the observed damage in Nile tilapia. The parameters measured included condition factor, survival rate, and gene expression of catalase (CAT), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), glutathione reductase (GSR), glutathione synthase (GSS), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The investigation was conducted with 160 Nile tilapia divided into four treatment groups: freshwater; 7 or 21 parts per thousand (‰) salinity, all fed a basal diet; as well as a fourth treatment group consisting of fish kept at 21‰ salinity fed a diet supplemented with vitamin C (1500 mg/kg). For gene expression analysis, liver samples were collected after 24 h or after 14 d. After 24 h, fish raised in 21‰ salinity and fed with the diet supplemented with vitamin C showed similar GPx expression as the control freshwater group. GSS expression in 21‰ salinity was similar to fish exposed to 7‰ salinity. Nile tilapia exposed to 21‰ salinity without vitamin C supplementation exhibited the highest HSP70 gene expression levels after 24 h. After 14-dtreatment, the lowest survival rate was observed in the 21‰ salinity group. After 14 d, the highest expression of GPx and GSR levels was detected in fish in the 21‰ salinity group that received vitamin C. Data indicate that vitamin C supplementation enhanced the expression of genes related to antioxidant capacity in Nile tilapia exposed to higher salinity, thereby increasing protection against the oxidative effects induced by high water salinity.</AB>.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marisa Silva Bastos
- a Animal Science Department , Federal University of Sergipe , São Cristñvão , Brazil
| | - Vittor Zancanela
- b Animal Science Department , Estadual University of Maringá , Maringá , Brazil
| | | | - Eliane Gasparino
- b Animal Science Department , Estadual University of Maringá , Maringá , Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Del Vesco
- a Animal Science Department , Federal University of Sergipe , São Cristñvão , Brazil
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14
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Dennenmoser S, Vamosi SM, Nolte AW, Rogers SM. Adaptive genomic divergence under high gene flow between freshwater and brackish-water ecotypes of prickly sculpin (Cottus asper) revealed by Pool-Seq. Mol Ecol 2016; 26:25-42. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Dennenmoser
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology; August Thienemann Strasse 2 24306 Plön Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; 2500 University Drive NW Calgary AB Canada T2N 1N4
| | - Steven M. Vamosi
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; 2500 University Drive NW Calgary AB Canada T2N 1N4
| | - Arne W. Nolte
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology; August Thienemann Strasse 2 24306 Plön Germany
- Institute for Biology; Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg; Carl von Ossietzky Str. 9-11 26111 Oldenburg Germany
| | - Sean M. Rogers
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; 2500 University Drive NW Calgary AB Canada T2N 1N4
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15
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Sui Y, Huang X, Kong H, Lu W, Wang Y. Physiological responses to salinity increase in blood parrotfish (Cichlasoma synspilum ♀ × Cichlasoma citrinellum ♂). SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:1246. [PMID: 27536529 PMCID: PMC4972809 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2930-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aims to evaluate the effects of adding salt to water on the physiological parameters of the blood parrot cichlid (Cichlasoma synspilum ♀ × Cichlasoma citrinellum ♂). The blood parrot cichlid is a popular species in the aquarium trade because of its behaviour and beauty. Salt is usually added to water during the culture or transportation of this fish. However, the manner by which the fish adjusts its physiological responses to salinity change is unclear. The effects of salinity on serum osmolality, immune-related enzyme activities, Na+–K+-ATPase activities in the gill, skin carotenoid content and oxygen consumption were analysed. Blood parrotfish individuals were transferred from freshwater to water with four salinity levels (0.16, 2.5, 5 and 7.5 ‰) for 168 h, and physiological responses were evaluated at 0, 6, 12, 24 and 168 h. Results showed no significant differences in serum acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activities, skin carotenoid content and oxygen consumption rate among the different groups. However, the serum osmolality at 6 h was significantly elevated. Moreover, salinity increase stimulated superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity from 0 to 6 h. SOD activity increased from 6 to 24 h but significantly reduced at 168 h when the fish were exposed to salt water. The SOD activity in the salinity 2.5 ‰ group recovered the initial level, whereas those in the salinity 5 and 7.5 ‰ groups decreased to levels lower than the initial level. The gill Na+–K+-ATPase activity significantly declined with time and salinity increase. Thus, adding an appropriate amount of salt can save energy consumption during osmoregulation and temporarily enhance the antioxidant activity of blood parrotfish. However, this strategy is insufficient for long-term culture. Therefore, adding salt to water only provides short-term benefit to blood parrot cichlid during transportation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanming Sui
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, 999 Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306 China.,Key Laboratory of East China Sea and Oceanic Fishery Resources Exploitation, Ministry of Agriculture of China, East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences, Shanghai, 20090 China
| | - Xizhi Huang
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, 999 Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306 China
| | - Hui Kong
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, 999 Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306 China
| | - Weiqun Lu
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, 999 Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306 China.,Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306 China
| | - Youji Wang
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, 999 Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306 China.,Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201306 China
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16
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Peña-Villalobos I, Narváez C, Sabat P. Metabolic cost of osmoregulation in a hypertonic environment in the invasive African clawed frog Xenopus laevis. Biol Open 2016; 5:955-61. [PMID: 27334694 PMCID: PMC4958268 DOI: 10.1242/bio.016543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of aquatic invertebrates reveal that salinity affects feeding and growth rates, reproduction, survival, and diversity. Little is known, however, about how salinity impacts the energy budget of vertebrates and amphibians in particular. The few studies focused on this topic in vertebrates suggest that the ingestion of salts and the resulting osmoregulatory activity is energetically expensive. We analyzed the effect of saline acclimation on standard metabolic rates (SMR) and the activities of metabolic enzymes of internal organs and osmoregulatory variables (plasma osmolality and urea plasma level) in females of Xenopus laevis by means of acclimating individuals to an isosmotic (235 mOsm NaCl; ISO group) and hyper-osmotic (340 mOsm NaCl; HYP group) environment for 40 days. After acclimation, we found that total and mass-specific SMR was approximately 80% higher in the HYP group than those found in the ISO group. These changes were accompanied by higher citrate synthase activities in liver and heart in the HYP group than in the ISO group. Furthermore, we found a significant and positive correlation between metabolic rates and plasma urea, and citrate synthase activity in liver and heart. These results support the notion that the cost of osmoregulation is probably common in most animal species and suggest the existence of a functional association between metabolic rates and the adjustments in osmoregulatory physiology, such as blood distribution and urea synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Peña-Villalobos
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile
| | - Cristóbal Narváez
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile
| | - Pablo Sabat
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 6513677, Chile
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17
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Lv J, Liu P, Gao B, Li J. The identification and characteristics of salinity-related microRNAs in gills of Portunus trituberculatus. Cell Stress Chaperones 2016; 21:63-74. [PMID: 26373863 PMCID: PMC4679733 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-015-0641-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression in organisms. To understand the underlying mechanisms behind the molecular response of the crab to low salt-stress, high-throughput Illumina/Solexa deep sequencing technology was used to investigate the expression profiles of miRNAs under low salinity challenged. Two mixed RNA pool libraries of gill tissues from low salinity challenged (LC) and the control groups (NC) were sequenced on the Illumina platform. A total of 6,166,057 and 7,032,973 high-quality reads were obtained from the NC and LC libraries, respectively. Sixty-seven miRNAs consisting of 16 known and 51 novel ones were identified, among which, 12 miRNAs were differentially expressed in LC compared to NC. Thirty-four of the target genes predicted were differentially expressed in the opposite direction to the miRNAs, which were involved in crucial processes related to osmoregulation by gene ontology (GO) functional enrichment analysis, such as anion transport processes (GO:0006820) and chitin metabolic process (GO:0006030). These results provide a basis for further investigation of the miRNA-modulating networks in osmoregulation of Portunus trituberculatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Lv
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.China and Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 266071, Qingdao, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.China and Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 266071, Qingdao, China
| | - Baoquan Gao
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.China and Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 266071, Qingdao, China
| | - Jian Li
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.China and Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 266071, Qingdao, China.
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18
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19
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Lai KP, Li JW, Gu J, Chan TF, Tse WKF, Wong CKC. Transcriptomic analysis reveals specific osmoregulatory adaptive responses in gill mitochondria-rich cells and pavement cells of the Japanese eel. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:1072. [PMID: 26678671 PMCID: PMC4683740 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-2271-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Homeostasis of ions and water is important for the maintenance of cellular functions. The regulation of the homeostasis is particularly important in euryhaline fish that migrate between freshwater (FW) and seawater (SW) environments. The fish gill, the major tissue that forms an interface separating the extracellular fluids and external water environment, has an effective transport system to maintain and regulate a constant body osmolality. In fish gills, the two major epithelial cells, pavement cells (PVCs) and mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs), are known to play key and complementary roles in ion transport at the interface. Discovering the robust mechanisms underlying the two cell types' response to osmotic stress would benefit our understanding of the fundamental mechanism allowing PVCs and MRCs to handle osmotic stress. Owing to the limited genomic data available on estuarine species, existing knowledge in this area is slim. In this study, transcriptome analyses were conducted using PVCs and MRCs isolated from Japanese eels adapted to FW or SW environments to provide a genome-wide molecular study to unravel the fundamental processes at work. RESULTS The study identified more than 12,000 transcripts in the gill cells. Interestingly, remarkable differential expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in PVCs (970 transcripts) instead of MRCs (400 transcripts) in gills of fish adapted to FW or SW. Since PVCs cover more than 90 % of the gill epithelial surface, the greater change in gene expression patterns in PVCs in response to external osmolality is anticipated. In the integrity pathway analysis, 19 common biological functions were identified in PVCs and MRCs. In the enriched signaling pathways analysis, most pathways differed between PVCs and MRCs; 14 enriched pathways were identified in PVCs and 12 in MRCs. The results suggest that the osmoregulatory responses in PVCs and MRCs are cell-type specific, which supports the complementary functions of the cells in osmoregulation. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to provide transcriptomic analysis of PVCs and MRCs in gills of eels adapted to FW or SW environments. It describes the cell-type specific transcriptomic network in different tonicity. The findings consolidate the known osmoregulatory pathways and provide molecular insight in osmoregulation. The presented data will be useful for researchers to select their targets for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keng Po Lai
- School of Biological Sciences, Kadoorie Biological Sciences Building, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Jing-Woei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong.,Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Je Gu
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Ting-Fung Chan
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - William Ka Fai Tse
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong.
| | - Chris Kong Chu Wong
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong. .,Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong.
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