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Karavin M. Bioaccumulation of Metals in Some Auchenorrhyncha (Insecta: Hemiptera) Species in Cherry Orchards Near Motorway and Their Usage as Biomonitor for Metal Pollution. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2024; 112:26. [PMID: 38281209 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-023-03843-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Traffic borne pollutants negatively affect organisms. This study aimed to determine the impact of traffic pollution on Auchenorrhyncha species and their usage as biomonitor for metal pollution. The study was carried out in the cherry orchard near the Amasya-Samsun D100/E80 motorway in Amasya, Türkiye. Metal concentrations in specimens tended to decrease with the increasing distance from the motorway. Significant variations were determined in some metal concentrations based on distance from the motorway. The maximum and minimum metal concentrations were obtained from 0 to 100 m, respectively. Negative relationships were determined between distance from the motorway and Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb concentrations in Arboridia versuta (Melichar, 1897), and Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb concentrations in Psammotettix provincialis (Ribaut, 1925). Metals were accumulated in the body of specimens. Therefore, it is thought that Auchenorrhyncha species may be used as a biomonitor for metal pollution due to their high metal concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Karavin
- Suluova Vocational School, Amasya University, Amasya, Türkiye.
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2
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Pallottini M, Goretti E, Argenti C, La Porta G, Tositti L, Dinelli E, Moroni B, Petroselli C, Gravina P, Selvaggi R, Cappelletti D. Butterflies as bioindicators of metal contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:95606-95620. [PMID: 37552448 PMCID: PMC10482766 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28930-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic trace metal contamination has significantly increased and has caused many hazardous consequences for the ecosystems and human health. The Terni basin valley (Central Italy) shows a heavy load of pollutants from industrial activities, while the characteristic orography structure of the valley favours air stagnation, thus limiting air pollution dispersal. The present study conducted in 2014 aimed to determine the concentration of ten metals in five species of butterflies at nine sites in the Terni valley along a 21-km-long transect, including both relatively pristine and industrial areas. At sites where soil contamination was high for a given metal, such as for chromium as in the case of site 4 (the closest to the steel plant) and for lead as in the case of site 2 (contaminated by a firing range), higher levels of contamination were observed in the tissues of butterflies. We found a correlation between soil contamination and the concentration of Cr, Al and Sr in the tissues of some species of butterflies. The sensitivity to contamination differed among the five species; in particular, Coenonympha pamphilus was generally the species that revealed the highest concentrations of all the ten trace metals at the sites closer to the industrial area. It is known that C. pamphilus is a sedentary species and that its host plants are the Poaceae, capable of accumulating high quantities of metals in their rhizosphere region, thus providing the link with soil contamination. Therefore, monitoring the metal concentration levels in butterflies might be a good indicator and a control tool of environmental quality, specifically in areas affected by high anthropogenic pollution loads linked to a specific source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Pallottini
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Enzo Goretti
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy.
| | - Chiara Argenti
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Gianandrea La Porta
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Laura Tositti
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician", University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, BO, Italy
| | - Enrico Dinelli
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, BO, Italy
| | - Beatrice Moroni
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Chiara Petroselli
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Paola Gravina
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - Roberta Selvaggi
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
| | - David Cappelletti
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, PG, Italy
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Pompka A, Szulińska E, Kafel A. Starvation and cadmium affect energy reserves and oxidative stress in individuals of Spodoptera exigua. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 31:1346-1355. [PMID: 36173496 PMCID: PMC9652202 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-022-02588-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Different factors, such as starvation and metal exposure, may affect development and cause oxidative stress in insects. Some host plants may contain a high concentration of cadmium due to their hyperaccumulating property. The negative effects of metals and hunger may be manifested by low availability of energetic substrates. This study aimed to assess whether the insect population with a history of long metal exposure may better manage metal stress or/and starvation at different developmental stages, with the use of energetic substrates. Two strains of Spodoptera exigua model organism were tested: control strain and cadmium strain (treated continuously for over 200 generations with subtoxic amounts of cadmium). The effects of different factors, individually and in combination, on the tested strains were assessed, first by determining the body weight of larvae and pupae and then by estimating the concentration of biomolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, or glycogen) in the 4th and 5th larval stages and in pupae, and the total antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation level in the 4th larval stage. Compared to control strain, cadmium strain individuals exhibited changes in the concentration of soluble carbohydrates and protein. This was partly related to earlier 1-day starvation. In particular, changes in carbohydrate concentration seemed to be a sensitive biomarker of metal stress, independent of the age of individuals and period of starvation. However, the increase in the total antioxidant capacity and the concentration of lipid peroxidation products in the 4th larval stage under the effect of cadmium was dependent on strain origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Pompka
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Bankowa 9, PL 40-007, Katowice, Poland.
| | - Elżbieta Szulińska
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Bankowa 9, PL 40-007, Katowice, Poland
| | - Alina Kafel
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Bankowa 9, PL 40-007, Katowice, Poland
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Čelić TV, Vukašinović EL, Kojić D, Orčić S, Milić S, Vasin J, Purać J. Exposure to High Concentrations of Cadmium Which Delay Development of Ostrinia Nubilalis Hbn. Larvae Affected the Balance of Bioelements. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2022; 83:193-200. [PMID: 35997790 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-022-00953-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
All processes involved in metal homeostasis must be coordinated to provide sufficient, but not toxic, concentrations of important bioelements, and to minimize detrimental effects of toxic metals. Our previous studies dealing with the exposure of O. nubilalis non-diapausing larvae to dietary Cd demonstrated that exposure to higher concentrations of Cd caused delay in the development of larvae, induced oxidative stress and also induced defense mechanisms against the toxic effects of Cd. The aim of the present study was to evaluate how acute and chronic exposure of O. nubilalis larvae to increased concentrations of dietary Cd affected the balance of important bioelements. The concentration of bioelements was analyzed in larvae (after short-term exposure) and pupae (after long-term exposure). The short-term exposure of final instar larvae (L5) to Cd did not affect significantly the concentration of any of the analyzed bioelements, while the long-term exposure of developing larvae to higher concentrations of Cd caused increase in the concentrations of Ca, Mg and Na in pupae. The bioaccumulation factor, calculated for bioelements after long-term exposure to Cd, was higher for the most bioelements in groups fed with diet containing higher concentrations of Cd, except K which displayed the opposite trend. Pearson correlation coefficient showed positive correlations between Cd and Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu and Zn, while negative correlation was observed between Cd and K. The results indicate that impact on the balance of important bioelements might be one of the mechanisms of cadmium toxicity and certainly raise numerous questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana V Čelić
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia.
| | - Elvira L Vukašinović
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
| | - Danijela Kojić
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
| | - Snežana Orčić
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
| | - Stanko Milić
- Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Laboratory for Soil and Agroecology, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jovica Vasin
- Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Laboratory for Soil and Agroecology, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jelena Purać
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
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Chen J, Guo Y, Huang S, Zhan H, Zhang M, Wang J, Shu Y. Integration of transcriptome and proteome reveals molecular mechanisms underlying stress responses of the cutworm, Spodoptera litura, exposed to different levels of lead (Pb). CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131205. [PMID: 34147986 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metals are major environmental pollutants that affect organisms across different trophic levels. Herbivorous insects play an important role in the bioaccumulation, and eventually, biomagnification of these metals. Although effects of heavy metal stress on insects have been well-studied, the molecular mechanisms underlying their effects remain poorly understood. Here, we used the RNA-Seq profiling and isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) approaches to unravel these mechanisms in the polyphagous pest Spodoptera litura exposed to lead (Pb) at two different concentrations (12.5 and 100 mg Pb/kg; PbL and PbH, respectively). Altogether, 1392 and 1630 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 58, 114 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in larvae exposed to PbL and PbH, respectively. After exposed to PbL, the main up-regulated genes clusters and proteins in S. litura larvae were associated with their metabolic processes, including carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism, but the levels of cytochrome P450 associated with the pathway of xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolism were found to be decreased. In contrast, the main up-regulated genes clusters and proteins in larvae exposed to PbH were enriched in the metabolism of xenobiotic by cytochrome P450, drug metabolism-cytochrome P450, and other drug metabolism enzymes, while the down-regulated genes and proteins were found to be closely related to the lipid (lipase) and protein (serine protease, trypsin) metabolism and growth processes (cuticular protein). These findings indicate that S. litura larvae exposed to PbL could enhance food digestion and absorption to prioritize for growth rather than detoxification, whereas S. litura larvae exposed to PbH reduced food digestion and absorption and channelized the limited energy for detoxification rather than growth. These contrasting results explain the dose-dependent effects of heavy metal stress on insect life-history traits, wherein low levels of heavy metal stress induce stimulation, while high levels of heavy metal stress cause inhibition at the transcriptome and proteome levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yeshan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Shimin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Huiru Zhan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Meifang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Jianwu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Yinghua Shu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Eco-Circular Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Centre for Modern Eco-agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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6
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Revisiting the concept of entomotoxicology. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:282-286. [PMID: 33024952 PMCID: PMC7530288 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Until now, the term entomotoxicology has only been used in medico-legal sciences. However, entomotoxicology as a whole has a much wider scope and forensic entomotoxicology is just one of its branches. Based on the literature a wider definition of the term is presented. Today, we can distinguish two major branches of entomotoxicology: 1) Forensic entomotoxicology, which uses the insects as evidence of the presence of xenobiotics in decomposing tissue during an investigation and 2) Environmental entomotoxicology, which uses the insects as bioindicators of environmental pollution in non-criminal circumstances. While forensic entomotoxicology is a relatively new discipline, research in environmental entomotoxicology began as far back as the 1920s. A review of the work in entomotoxicology from the last 6 years is presented, covering several interesting new trends. This article aims to redefine entomotoxicology, which should increase awareness to bring more collaborations and multidisciplinary between related scientific fields.
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Vlahović M, Matić D, Ilijin L, Mrdaković M, Todorović D, Lazarević J, Perić-Mataruga V. Effect of Cadmium Dietary Intake on
Midgut β-Glucosidase
of Lymantria dispar Larvae. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093020030072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Perić-Mataruga V, Ilijin L, Mrdaković M, Todorović D, Prokić M, Matić D, Vlahović M. Parameters of oxidative stress, cholinesterase activity, Cd bioaccumulation in the brain and midgut of Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) caterpillars from unpolluted and polluted forests. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 218:416-424. [PMID: 30476774 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) can display a variety of different effects on living organisms. The objectives of the present study were to investigate Cd bioaccumulation and differences in parameters of oxidative stress (activities of the enzymes: superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, and amounts of non-enzymatic free sulfhydryl groups and total glutathione) and cholinesterase activity in larval brain and midgut tissues of the polyphagous forest insect Lymantria dispar collected from unpolluted and polluted oak forests. Fourth instar L. dispar caterpillars from the unpolluted forest had higher body mass but accumulated more Cd in comparison to caterpillars from the polluted forest. In both populations the midgut was more sensitive than the brain to the prooxidative effects of Cd. Enzyme activities and amounts of non-enzymatic parameters tended to be greater in midgut tissues than in the brain, except for cholinesterase activity. Parameters of oxidative stress had higher values in caterpillar tissues from the polluted than from the unpolluted oak forest. The observed differences between the two natural populations point to the importance of knowing the history of population exposure to environmental pollution when monitoring forest ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesna Perić-Mataruga
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Larisa Ilijin
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marija Mrdaković
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dajana Todorović
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marko Prokić
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Physiology, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dragana Matić
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milena Vlahović
- University of Belgrade, Institute of Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", Department of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, Despot Stefan Blvd. 142, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
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Ullah I, Wang Y, Eide DJ, Dunwell JM. Evolution, and functional analysis of Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Proteins (NRAMPs) from Theobroma cacao and their role in cadmium accumulation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14412. [PMID: 30258092 PMCID: PMC6158261 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32819-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of the toxic metal cadmium (Cd2+) in certain foodstuffs is recognised as a global problem, and there is increasing legislative pressure to reduce the content of Cd in food. The present study was conducted on cacao (Theobroma cacao), the source of chocolate, and one of the crops known to accumulate Cd in certain conditions. There are a range of possible genetic and agronomic methods being tested as a route to such reduction. As part of a gene-based approach, we focused on the Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Proteins (NRAMPS), a family of proton/metal transporter proteins that are evolutionarily conserved across all species from bacteria to humans. The plant NRAMP gene family are of particular importance as they are responsible for uptake of the nutritionally vital divalent cations Fe2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, as well as Cd2+. We identified the five NRAMP genes in cacao, sequenced these genes and studied their expression in various organs. We then confirmed the expression patterns in response to variation in nutrient cation availability and addition of Cd2+. Functional analysis by expression in yeast provided evidence that NRAMP5 encoded a protein capable of Cd2+ transport, and suggested this gene as a target for genetic selection/modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ihsan Ullah
- School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Earley Gate, Reading, RG6 6AR, UK
| | - Yirong Wang
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - David J Eide
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Jim M Dunwell
- School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Earley Gate, Reading, RG6 6AR, UK.
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