The role of potassium and host calcium signaling in Toxoplasma gondii egress

Regulation of calcium entry by cyclic GMP signaling in Toxoplasma gondii

Ca2+ signaling impacts almost every aspect of cellular life. Ca2+ signals are generated through the opening of ion channels that permit the flow of Ca2+ down an electrochemical gradient. Cytosolic Ca2+ fluctuations can be generated through Ca2+ entry from the extracellular milieu or release from intracellular stores. In Toxoplasma gondii, Ca2+ ions play critical roles in several essential functions for the parasite, like invasion of host cells, motility, and egress. Plasma membrane Ca2+ entry in T. gondii was previously shown to be activated by cytosolic calcium and inhibited by the voltage-operated Ca2+ channel blocker nifedipine. However, Ca2+ entry in T. gondii did not show the classical characteristics of store regulation. In this work, we characterized the mechanism by which cytosolic Ca2+ regulates plasma membrane Ca2+ entry in extracellular T. gondii tachyzoites loaded with the Ca2+ indicator Fura-2. We compared the inhibition by nifedipine with the effect of the broad spectrum TRP channel inhibitor, anthranilic acid or ACA, and we find that both inhibitors act on different Ca2+ entry activities. We demonstrate, using pharmacological and genetic tools, that an intracellular signaling pathway engaging cyclic GMP, protein kinase G, Ca2+, and the phosphatidyl inositol phospholipase C affects Ca2+ entry and we present a model for crosstalk between cyclic GMP and cytosolic Ca2+ for the activation of T. gondii's lytic cycle traits.

Changes in K+ Concentration as a Signaling Mechanism in the Apicomplexa Parasites Plasmodium and Toxoplasma

During their life cycle, apicomplexan parasites pass through different microenvironments and encounter a range of ion concentrations. The discovery that the GPCR-like SR25 in Plasmodium falciparum is activated by a shift in potassium concentration indicates that the parasite can take advantage of its development by sensing different ionic concentrations in the external milieu. This pathway involves the activation of phospholipase C and an increase in cytosolic calcium. In the present report, we summarize the information available in the literature regarding the role of potassium ions during parasite development. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms that allow the parasite to cope with ionic potassium changes contributes to our knowledge about the cell cycle of Plasmodium spp.

Babesia divergens egress from host cells is orchestrated by essential and druggable kinases and proteases

Apicomplexan egress from host cells is fundamental to the spread of infection and is poorly characterized in Babesia spp., parasites of veterinary importance and emerging zoonoses. Through the use of video microscopy, transcriptomics and chemical genetics, we have implicated signaling, proteases and gliding motility as key drivers of egress by Babesia divergens. We developed reverse genetics to perform a knockdown screen of putative mediators of egress, identifying kinases and proteases involved in distinct steps of egress (ASP3, PKG and CDPK4) and invasion (ASP2, ASP3 and PKG). Inhibition of egress leads to continued intracellular replication, indicating exit from the replication cycle is uncoupled from egress. Chemical genetics validated PKG, ASP2 and ASP3 as druggable targets in Babesia spp. All taken together, egress in B. divergens more closely resembles T. gondii than the more evolutionarily-related Plasmodium spp. We have established a molecular framework for biological and translational studies of B. divergens egress.

Animal venoms: a novel source of anti-Toxoplasma gondii drug candidates

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a nucleated intracellular parasitic protozoan with a broad host selectivity. It causes toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised or immunodeficient patients. The currently available treatments for toxoplasmosis have significant side effects as well as certain limitations, and the development of vaccines remains to be explored. Animal venoms are considered to be an important source of novel antimicrobial agents. Some peptides from animal venoms have amphipathic alpha-helix structures. They inhibit the growth of pathogens by targeting membranes to produce lethal pores and cause membrane rupture. Venom molecules generally possess immunomodulatory properties and play key roles in the suppression of pathogenic organisms. Here, we summarized literatures of the last 15 years on the interaction of animal venom peptides with T. gondii and attempt to explore the mechanisms of their interaction with parasites that involve membrane and organelle damage, immune response regulation and ion homeostasis. Finally, we analyzed some limitations of venom peptides for drug therapy and some insights into their development in future studies. It is hoped that more research will be stimulated to turn attention to the medical value of animal venoms in toxoplasmosis.

Essential Functions of Calmodulin and Identification of Its Proximal Interacting Proteins in Tachyzoite-Stage Toxoplasma gondii via BioID Technology

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a pathogen belonging to the apicomplexan phylum, and it threatens human and animal health. Calcium ions, a critical second messenger in cells, can regulate important biological processes, including parasite invasion and egress. Calmodulin (CaM) is a small, highly conserved, Ca²⁺-binding protein found in all eukaryotic cells. After binding to Ca²⁺, CaM can be activated to interact with various proteins. However, little is known about CaM's function and its interacting proteins in T. gondii. In this study, we successfully knocked down CaM in the T. gondii parent strain TATI using a tetracycline-off system with the Toxoplasma CaM promoter. The results indicated that CaM was required for tachyzoite proliferation, invasion, and egress and that CaM depletion resulted in apicoplast loss, thus threatening parasite survival in the next lytic cycle. In the tachyzoite stage, CaM loss caused significant anomalies in the parasite's basal constriction, motility, and parasite rosette-like arrangement in the parasitophorous vacuole (PV). These phenotypic defects caused by CaM depletion indicate the importance of CaM in T. gondii. Therefore, it is important to identify the CaM-interacting proteins in T. gondii. Applying BioID technology, more than 300 CaM's proximal interacting proteins were identified from T. gondii. These CaM partners were broadly distributed throughout the parasite. Furthermore, the protein interactome and transcriptome analyses indicated the potential role of CaM in ion binding, cation binding, metal ion binding, calcium ion binding, and oxidation-reduction. Our findings shed light on the CaM function and CaM-interactome in T. gondii and other eukaryotes. IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular pathogen that threatens human and animal health. This unicellular parasite is active in many biological processes, such as egress and invasion. The implementation efficiency of T. gondii biological processes is dependent on signal transmission. Ca²⁺, as a second messenger, is essential for the parasite's life cycle. Calmodulin, a ubiquitous Ca²⁺ receptor protein, is highly conserved and mediates numerous Ca²⁺-dependent events in eukaryotes. Few CaM functions or regulated partners have been characterized in T. gondii tachyzoites. Here, we reported the essential functions of calmodulin in T. gondii tachyzoite and the identification of its interacting partners using BioID technology, shedding light on the CaM function and CaM-interactome in Toxoplasma gondii and other eukaryotes.

Temporal and thermal profiling of the Toxoplasma proteome implicates parasite Protein Phosphatase 1 in the regulation of Ca2+-responsive pathways

Apicomplexan parasites cause persistent mortality and morbidity worldwide through diseases including malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. Ca²⁺ signaling pathways have been repurposed in these eukaryotic pathogens to regulate parasite-specific cellular processes governing the replicative and lytic phases of the infectious cycle, as well as the transition between them. Despite the presence of conserved Ca²⁺-responsive proteins, little is known about how specific signaling elements interact to impact pathogenesis. We mapped the Ca²⁺-responsive proteome of the model apicomplexan T. gondii via time-resolved phosphoproteomics and thermal proteome profiling. The waves of phosphoregulation following PKG activation and stimulated Ca²⁺ release corroborate known physiological changes but identify specific proteins operating in these pathways. Thermal profiling of parasite extracts identified many expected Ca²⁺-responsive proteins, such as parasite Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinases. Our approach also identified numerous Ca²⁺-responsive proteins that are not predicted to bind Ca²⁺, yet are critical components of the parasite signaling network. We characterized protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) as a Ca²⁺-responsive enzyme that relocalized to the parasite apex upon Ca²⁺ store release. Conditional depletion of PP1 revealed that the phosphatase regulates Ca²⁺ uptake to promote parasite motility. PP1 may thus be partly responsible for Ca²⁺-regulated serine/threonine phosphatase activity in apicomplexan parasites.

Activity of isoflavone biochanin A in chronic experimental toxoplasmosis: impact on inflammation

Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide prevalent parasite. The infection has been linked to variable inflammatory effects including neuroinflammation. Biochanin A (BCA) is an isoflavone, known for its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. In this study, we examined the effect of BCA on the brain and liver inflammatory lesions in a murine model with chronic toxoplasmosis. Mice were divided in to six groups: non-infected control, non-infected BCA-treated, and four infected groups with Toxoplasmagondii Me49-type II cystogenic strain: infected control, BCA (50 mg/kg/day)-treated, combined BCA/cotrimoxazole-treated and cotrimoxazole (370 mg/kg/day) alone-treated. Gene expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR in the brain and liver tissues. In the infected control group, an upregulation of TNF-α and IL-1β mRNA expression levels was found. However, a downregulation of iNOS expression was detected in the brain of infected control mice. In both BCA- and combined-treated groups, the brain and liver tissues showed significantly reduced inflammatory lesions compared to the infected control mice with inhibited TNF-α and IL-1β mRNA levels. The iNOS expression levels in the brain tissues of BCA group were significantly higher than the levels of the infected control group. BCA alone or combined significantly reduced T. gondii cyst count in the brain tissues. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory activity of BCA was demonstrated in the brain tissues of mice with chronic toxoplasmosis with decreased TNF-α and IL-1β expression levels and increased iNOS expression levels.

Toxoplasma gondii excretion of glycolytic products is associated with acidification of the parasitophorous vacuole during parasite egress

The Toxoplasma gondii lytic cycle is a repetition of host cell invasion, replication, egress, and re-invasion into the next host cell. While the molecular players involved in egress have been studied in greater detail in recent years, the signals and pathways for triggering egress from the host cell have not been fully elucidated. A perforin-like protein, PLP1, has been shown to be necessary for permeabilizing the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) membrane or exit from the host cell. In vitro studies indicated that PLP1 is most active in acidic conditions, and indirect evidence using superecliptic pHluorin indicated that the PV pH drops prior to parasite egress. Using ratiometric pHluorin, a GFP variant that responds to changes in pH with changes in its bimodal excitation spectrum peaks, allowed us to directly measure the pH in the PV prior to and during egress by live-imaging microscopy. A statistically significant change was observed in PV pH during ionomycin or zaprinast induced egress in both wild-type RH and Δplp1 vacuoles compared to DMSO-treated vacuoles. Interestingly, if parasites are chemically paralyzed, a pH drop is still observed in RH but not in Δplp1 tachyzoites. This indicates that the pH drop is dependent on the presence of PLP1 or motility. Efforts to determine transporters, exchangers, or pumps that could contribute to the drop in PV pH identified two formate-nitrite transporters (FNTs). Auxin induced conditional knockdown and knockouts of FNT1 and FNT2 reduced the levels of lactate and pyruvate released by the parasites and lead to an abatement of vacuolar acidification. While additional transporters and molecules are undoubtedly involved, we provide evidence of a definitive reduction in vacuolar pH associated with induced and natural egress and characterize two transporters that contribute to the acidification.

Toxoplasma gondii is a single celled intracellular parasite that infects many different animals, and it is thought to infect up to one third of the human population. This parasite must rupture out of its replicative compartment and the host cell to spread from one cell to another. Previous studies indicated that a decrease in pH occurs within the replicative compartment near the time of parasite exit from host cells, an event termed egress. However, it remained unknown whether the decrease in pH is directly tied to egress and, if so, what is responsible for the decrease in pH. Here we used a fluorescent reporter protein to directly measure pH within the replicative compartment during parasite egress. We found that pH decreases immediately prior to parasite egress and that this decrease is linked to parasite disruption of membranes. We also identified a family of transporters that release acidic products from parasite use of glucose for energy as contributing to the decrease in pH during egress. Our findings provide new insight that connects parasite glucose metabolism to acidification of its replicative compartment during egress from infected cells.

The pathogenicity and virulence of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protist infecting a wide group of warm-blooded animals, ranging from birds to humans. While this infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals, it can also lead to severe ocular or neurological outcomes in immunocompromised individuals or in developing fetuses. This obligate intracellular parasite has the ability to infect a considerable range of nucleated cells and can propagate in the intermediate host. Yet, under the pressure of the immune system it transforms into an encysted persistent form residing primarily in the brain and muscle tissues. Encysted parasites, which are resistant to current medication, may reactivate and give rise to an acute infection. The clinical outcome of toxoplasmosis depends on a complex balance between the host immune response and parasite virulence factors. Susceptibility to the disease is thus determined by both parasite strains and host species. Recent advances on our understanding of host cell-parasite interactions and parasite virulence have brought new insights into the pathophysiology of T. gondii infection and are summarized here.

Toxoplasma bradyzoites exhibit physiological plasticity of calcium and energy stores controlling motility and egress

Toxoplasma gondii has evolved different developmental stages for disseminating during acute infection (i.e., tachyzoites) and establishing chronic infection (i.e., bradyzoites). Calcium ion (Ca2+) signaling tightly regulates the lytic cycle of tachyzoites by controlling microneme secretion and motility to drive egress and cell invasion. However, the roles of Ca2+ signaling pathways in bradyzoites remain largely unexplored. Here, we show that Ca2+ responses are highly restricted in bradyzoites and that they fail to egress in response to agonists. Development of dual-reporter parasites revealed dampened Ca2+ responses and minimal microneme secretion by bradyzoites induced in vitro or harvested from infected mice and tested ex vivo. Ratiometric Ca2+ imaging demonstrated lower Ca2+ basal levels, reduced magnitude, and slower Ca2+ kinetics in bradyzoites compared with tachyzoites stimulated with agonists. Diminished responses in bradyzoites were associated with downregulation of Ca2+-ATPases involved in intracellular Ca2+ storage in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and acidocalcisomes. Once liberated from cysts by trypsin digestion, bradyzoites incubated in glucose plus Ca2+ rapidly restored their intracellular Ca2+ and ATP stores, leading to enhanced gliding. Collectively, our findings indicate that intracellular bradyzoites exhibit dampened Ca2+ signaling and lower energy levels that restrict egress, and yet upon release they rapidly respond to changes in the environment to regain motility.

Pan-phylum genome-wide identification of sodium calcium exchangers reveal heterogeneous expansions and possible roles in nematode parasitism

Calcium signaling is ubiquitous in nematode development from fertilization to cell specification to apoptosis. Calcium also regulates dauer entry in Caenorhabditis elegans, which corresponds to the infective stage of parasitic nematodes. In diverse parasites such as Trypanosoma cruzi and Toxoplasma gondii calcium has been shown to regulate host cell entry and egress, and perturbing calcium signaling represents a possible route to inhibit infection and parasitism in these species. Sodium calcium exchangers are considered the most important mechanism of calcium efflux, and our lab has previously characterized the sodium calcium exchanger gene family in C. elegans and studied the diversity of this family across a subset of specific nematode species. Here we build upon these data and explore sodium calcium exchangers across 108 species of nematodes. Our data reveal substantial differences in sodium calcium exchanger counts across the Phylum and detail expansions and contractions of specific exchanger subtypes within certain nematode clades. Finally, we also provide evidence for a role of sodium calcium exchangers in parasite activation by examining differentially expressed genes in non-activated versus activated infective stage larvae. Taken together our findings paint a heterogeneous picture of sodium calcium exchanger evolution across the Phylum Nematoda that may reflect unique adaptations to free-living and parasitic lifestyles.

Calcium signaling in intracellular protist parasites

Calcium ion (Ca²⁺) signaling is one of the most frequently employed mechanisms of signal transduction by eukaryotic cells, and starts with either Ca²⁺ release from intracellular stores or Ca²⁺ entry through the plasma membrane. In intracellular protist parasites Ca²⁺ signaling initiates a sequence of events that may facilitate their invasion of host cells, respond to environmental changes within the host, or regulate the function of their intracellular organelles. In this review we examine recent findings in Ca²⁺ signaling in two groups of intracellular protist parasites that have been studied in more detail, the apicomplexan and the trypanosomatid parasites.

Calcium signaling through a transient receptor channel is important for Toxoplasma gondii growth

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels participate in calcium ion (Ca²⁺) influx and intracellular Ca²⁺ release. TRP channels have not been studied in Toxoplasma gondii or any other apicomplexan parasite. In this work, we characterize TgGT1_310560, a protein predicted to possess a TRP domain (TgTRPPL-2), and determined its role in Ca²⁺ signaling in T. gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis. TgTRPPL-2 localizes to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of T. gondii. The ΔTgTRPPL-2 mutant was defective in growth and cytosolic Ca²⁺ influx from both extracellular and intracellular sources. Heterologous expression of TgTRPPL-2 in HEK-3KO cells allowed its functional characterization. Patching of ER-nuclear membranes demonstrates that TgTRPPL-2 is a non-selective cation channel that conducts Ca²⁺. Pharmacological blockers of TgTRPPL-2 inhibit Ca²⁺ influx and parasite growth. This is the first report of an apicomplexan ion channel that conducts Ca²⁺ and may initiate a Ca²⁺ signaling cascade that leads to the stimulation of motility, invasion, and egress. TgTRPPL-2 is a potential target for combating toxoplasmosis.

Ca2+ entry at the plasma membrane and uptake by acidic stores is regulated by the activity of the V-H+ -ATPase in Toxoplasma gondii

Ca²⁺ is a universal intracellular signal that regulates many cellular functions. In Toxoplasma gondii, the controlled influx of extracellular and intracellular Ca²⁺ into the cytosol initiates a signaling cascade that promotes pathogenic processes like tissue destruction and dissemination. In this work, we studied the role of proton transport in cytosolic Ca²⁺ homeostasis and the initiation of Ca²⁺ signaling. We used a T. gondii mutant of the V-H⁺ -ATPase, a pump previously shown to transport protons to the extracellular medium, and to control intracellular pH and membrane potential and we show that proton gradients are important for maintaining resting cytosolic Ca²⁺ at physiological levels and for Ca²⁺ influx. Proton transport was also important for Ca²⁺ storage by acidic stores and, unexpectedly, the endoplasmic reticulum. Proton transport impacted the amount of polyphosphate (polyP), a phosphate polymer that binds Ca²⁺ and concentrates in acidocalcisomes. This was supported by the co-localization of the vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 (VTC4), the catalytic subunit of the VTC complex that synthesizes polyP, with the V-ATPase in acidocalcisomes. Our work shows that proton transport regulates plasma membrane Ca²⁺ transport and control acidocalcisome polyP and Ca²⁺ content, impacting Ca²⁺ signaling and downstream stimulation of motility and egress in T. gondii.

Ferlins and TgDOC2 in Toxoplasma Microneme, Rhoptry and Dense Granule Secretion

The host cell invasion process of apicomplexan parasites like Toxoplasma gondii is facilitated by sequential exocytosis of the microneme, rhoptry and dense granule organelles. Exocytosis is facilitated by a double C2 domain (DOC2) protein family. This class of C2 domains is derived from an ancestral calcium (Ca2+) binding archetype, although this feature is optional in extant C2 domains. DOC2 domains provide combinatorial power to the C2 domain, which is further enhanced in ferlins that harbor 5-7 C2 domains. Ca2+ conditionally engages the C2 domain with lipids, membranes, and/or proteins to facilitating vesicular trafficking and membrane fusion. The widely conserved T. gondii ferlins 1 (FER1) and 2 (FER2) are responsible for microneme and rhoptry exocytosis, respectively, whereas an unconventional TgDOC2 is essential for microneme exocytosis. The general role of ferlins in endolysosmal pathways is consistent with the repurposed apicomplexan endosomal pathways in lineage specific secretory organelles. Ferlins can facilitate membrane fusion without SNAREs, again pertinent to the Apicomplexa. How temporal raises in Ca2+ combined with spatiotemporally available membrane lipids and post-translational modifications mesh to facilitate sequential exocytosis events is discussed. In addition, new data on cross-talk between secretion events together with the identification of a new microneme protein, MIC21, is presented.