1
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Rochais F, Kelly RG. Fibroblast growth factor 10. Differentiation 2024; 139:100741. [PMID: 38040515 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2023.100741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10) is a major morphoregulatory factor that plays essential signaling roles during vertebrate multiorgan development and homeostasis. FGF10 is predominantly expressed in mesenchymal cells and signals though FGFR2b in adjacent epithelia to regulate branching morphogenesis, stem cell fate, tissue differentiation and proliferation, in addition to autocrine roles. Genetic loss of function analyses have revealed critical requirements for FGF10 signaling during limb, lung, digestive system, ectodermal, nervous system, craniofacial and cardiac development. Heterozygous FGF10 mutations have been identified in human genetic syndromes associated with craniofacial anomalies, including lacrimal and salivary gland aplasia. Elevated Fgf10 expression is associated with poor prognosis in a range of cancers. In addition to developmental and disease roles, FGF10 regulates homeostasis and repair of diverse adult tissues and has been identified as a target for regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert G Kelly
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR 7288, IBDM, Marseille, France.
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2
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Takano T, Yule DI. Neuronal and hormonal control of Ca 2+ signalling in exocrine glands: insight from in vivo studies. J Physiol 2024; 602:3341-3350. [PMID: 38847391 PMCID: PMC11250672 DOI: 10.1113/jp285461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Fluid and enzyme secretion from exocrine glands is initiated by Ca2+ signalling in acinar cells and is activated by external neural or hormonal signals. A wealth of information has been derived from studies in acutely isolated exocrine cells but Ca2+ signalling has until recently not been studied in undisrupted intact tissue in live mice. Our in vivo observations using animals expressing genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators in specific cell types in exocrine glands revealed both similarities to and differences from the spatiotemporal characteristics previously reported in isolated cells. These in vivo studies facilitate further understanding of how both neuronal and hormonal input shapes Ca2+ signalling events in a physiological setting and how these signals are translated into the stimulation of fluid secretion and exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Takano
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14526, USA
| | - David I. Yule
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14526, USA
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3
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Papinska JA, Durślewicz J, Bagavant H, Deshmukh US. Deleting Mitochondrial Superoxide Dismutase 2 in Salivary Gland Ductal Epithelial Cells Recapitulates Non-Sjögren's Sicca Syndrome. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5983. [PMID: 38892170 PMCID: PMC11172772 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Elevated oxidative stress can play a pivotal role in autoimmune diseases by exacerbating inflammatory responses and tissue damage. In Sjögren's disease (SjD), the contribution of oxidative stress in the disease pathogenesis remains unclear. To address this question, we created mice with a tamoxifen-inducible conditional knockout (KO) of a critical antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase 2 (Sod2), in the salivary glands (i-sg-Sod2 KO mice). Following tamoxifen treatment, Sod2 deletion occurred primarily in the ductal epithelium, and the salivary glands showed a significant downregulation of Sod2 expression. At twelve weeks post-treatment, salivary glands from the i-sg-Sod2 KO mice exhibited increased 3-Nitrotyrosine staining. Bulk RNA-seq revealed alterations in gene expression pathways related to ribosome biogenesis, mitochondrial function, and oxidative phosphorylation. Significant changes were noted in genes characteristic of salivary gland ionocytes. The i-sg-Sod2 KO mice developed reversible glandular hypofunction. However, this functional loss was not accompanied by glandular lymphocytic foci or circulating anti-nuclear antibodies. These data demonstrate that although localized oxidative stress in salivary gland ductal cells was insufficient for SjD development, it induced glandular dysfunction. The i-sg-Sod2 KO mouse resembles patients classified as non-Sjögren's sicca and will be a valuable model for deciphering oxidative-stress-mediated glandular dysfunction and recovery mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna A. Papinska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Oklahoma University Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Justyna Durślewicz
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (J.D.); (H.B.)
| | - Harini Bagavant
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (J.D.); (H.B.)
| | - Umesh S. Deshmukh
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (J.D.); (H.B.)
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4
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Su S, Wahl A, Rugis J, Suresh V, Yule DI, Sneyd J. A mathematical model of ENaC and Slc26a6 regulation by CFTR in salivary gland ducts. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2024; 326:G555-G566. [PMID: 38349781 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00168.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease caused by the mutations of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene. Cftr is a critical ion channel expressed in the apical membrane of mouse salivary gland striated duct cells. Although Cftr is primarily a Cl- channel, its knockout leads to higher salivary Cl- and Na+ concentrations and lower pH. Mouse experiments show that the activation of Cftr upregulates epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) protein expression level and Slc26a6 (a 1Cl-:2[Formula: see text] exchanger of the solute carrier family) activity. Experimentally, it is difficult to predict how much the coregulation effects of CFTR contribute to the abnormal Na+, Cl-, and [Formula: see text] concentrations and pH in CF saliva. To address this question, we construct a wild-type mouse salivary gland model and simulate CFTR knockout by altering the expression levels of CFTR, ENaC, and Slc26a6. By reproducing the in vivo and ex vivo final saliva measurements from wild-type and CFTR knockout animals, we obtain computational evidence that ENaC and Slc26a6 activities are downregulated in CFTR knockout in salivary glands.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This paper describes a salivary gland mathematical model simulating the ion exchange between saliva and the salivary gland duct epithelium. The novelty lies in the implementation of CFTR regulating ENaC and Slc26a6 in a CFTR knockout gland. By reproducing the experimental saliva measurements in wild-type and CFTR knockout glands, the model shows that CFTR regulates ENaC and Slc26a6 anion exchanger in salivary glands. The method could be used to understand the various cystic fibrosis phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Su
- Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Amanda Wahl
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, United States
| | - John Rugis
- Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Vinod Suresh
- Auckland Biomedical Engineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David I Yule
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, United States
| | - James Sneyd
- Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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5
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Hoki M, Yamada Y, Hiratomo E, Hirata M, Takeuchi Y, Yoshimatsu M, Kikuchi M, Kishimoto Y, Marx A, Haga H. Expression of FOXI1 and POU2F3 varies among different salivary gland neoplasms and is higher in Warthin tumor. Discov Oncol 2024; 15:36. [PMID: 38358561 PMCID: PMC10869675 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-024-00892-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Salivary gland tumors are histologically diverse. Ionocytes and tuft cells, rare epithelial cells found in normal salivary glands, might be associated with salivary tumors. Here, we explored the expression of FOXI1 and POU2F3, master regulators of ionocytes and tuft cells, respectively, for common salivary neoplasms using immunohistochemistry. METHODS We analyzed normal salivary tissues and nine salivary gland tumors; Warthin tumors (WT), pleomorphic adenomas (PA), basal cell adenomas, and oncocytomas were benign, whereas mucoepidermoid, adenoid cystic, acinic cell, salivary duct carcinomas, and polymorphous adenocarcinomas were malignant. RESULTS Normal salivary glands contained a few FOXI1- and POU2F3-positive cells in the ducts instead of the acini, consistent with ionocytes and tuft cells, respectively. Among the benign tumors, only WTs and PAs consistently expressed FOXI1 (10/10 and 9/10, respectively). The median H-score of WTs was significantly higher than that of PAs (17.5 vs. 4, P = 0.01). While WTs and PAs harbored POU2F3-positive cells (10/10 and 9/10, respectively), the median H-score was higher in WTs than in PAs (10.5 vs 4, respectively). Furthermore, WTs exhibited a unique staining pattern of FOXI1- and POU2F3-positive cells, which were present in luminal and abluminal locations, respectively. Whereas none of the malignant tumors expressed FOXI1, only adenoid cystic carcinoma consistently expressed POU2F3 (5/5), with a median H-score of 4. CONCLUSION The expression patterns of the characteristic transcription factors found in ionocytes and tuft cells vary among salivary gland tumor types and are higher in WT, which might be relevant for understanding and diagnosing salivary gland neoplasms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahito Hoki
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yosuke Yamada
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan.
| | - Emi Hiratomo
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Masahiro Hirata
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yasuhide Takeuchi
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Yoshimatsu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kikuchi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Kobe City Medical Center General Hospital, Kobe, Japan
| | - Yo Kishimoto
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Alexander Marx
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hironori Haga
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
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6
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Peloggia J, Lush ME, Tsai YY, Wood C, Piotrowski T. Environmental and molecular control of tissue-specific ionocyte differentiation in zebrafish. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.12.575421. [PMID: 38260427 PMCID: PMC10802608 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.12.575421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Organisms adjust their physiology to cope with environmental fluctuations and maintain fitness. These adaptations occur via genetic changes over multiple generations or through acclimation, a set of reversible phenotypic changes that confer resilience to the individual. Aquatic organisms are subject to dramatic seasonal fluctuations in water salinity, which can affect the function of lateral line mechanosensory hair cells. To maintain hair cell function when salinity decreases, ion-regulating cells, Neuromast-associated ionocytes (Nm ionocytes), increase in number and invade lateral line neuromasts. How environmental changes trigger this adaptive differentiation of Nm ionocytes and how these cells are specified is still unknown. Here, we identify Nm ionocyte progenitors as foxi3a/foxi3b-expressing skin cells and show that their differentiation is associated with sequential activation of different Notch pathway components, which control ionocyte survival. We demonstrate that new Nm ionocytes are rapidly specified by absolute salinity levels, independently of stress response pathways. We further show that Nm ionocyte differentiation is selectively triggered by depletion of specific ions, such as Ca2+ and Na+/Cl-, but not by low K+ levels, and is independent of media osmolarity. Finally, we demonstrate that hair cell activity plays a role in Nm ionocyte recruitment and that systemic factors are not necessary for Nm ionocyte induction. In summary, we have identified how environmental changes activate a signaling cascade that triggers basal skin cell progenitors to differentiate into Nm ionocytes and invade lateral line organs. This adaptive behavior is an example of physiological plasticity that may prove essential for survival in changing climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Peloggia
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Mark E. Lush
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Ya-Yin Tsai
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Christopher Wood
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Tatjana Piotrowski
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
- Lead Contact
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7
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Aure MH, Symonds JM, Villapudua CU, Dodge JT, Werner S, Knosp WM, Hoffman MP. FGFR2 is essential for salivary gland duct homeostasis and MAPK-dependent seromucous acinar cell differentiation. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6485. [PMID: 37838739 PMCID: PMC10576811 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42243-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Exocrine acinar cells in salivary glands (SG) are critical for oral health and loss of functional acinar cells is a major clinical challenge. Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) are essential for early development of multiple organs, including SG. However, the role of FGFR signaling in specific populations later in development and during acinar differentiation are unknown. Here, we use scRNAseq and conditional deletion of murine FGFRs in vivo to identify essential roles for FGFRs in craniofacial, early SG development and progenitor function during duct homeostasis. Importantly, we also discover that FGFR2 via MAPK signaling is critical for seromucous acinar differentiation and secretory gene expression, while FGFR1 is dispensable. We show that FGF7, expressed by myoepithelial cells (MEC), activates the FGFR2-dependent seromucous transcriptional program. Here, we propose a model where MEC-derived FGF7 drives seromucous acinar differentiation, providing a rationale for targeting FGFR2 signaling in regenerative therapies to restore acinar function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit H Aure
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Jennifer M Symonds
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Carlos U Villapudua
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Joshua T Dodge
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sabine Werner
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wendy M Knosp
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Matthew P Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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8
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Wahl AM, Takano T, Su S, Warner BM, Perez P, Sneyd J, Yule DI. Structural and functional analysis of salivary intercalated duct cells reveals a secretory phenotype. J Physiol 2023; 601:4539-4556. [PMID: 37724716 PMCID: PMC10591963 DOI: 10.1113/jp285104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, all salivary ducts (intercalated, striated and collecting) are assumed to function broadly in a similar manner, reclaiming ions that were secreted by the secretory acinar cells while preserving fluid volume and delivering saliva to the oral cavity. Nevertheless, there has been minimal investigation into the structural and functional differences between distinct types of salivary duct cells. Therefore, in this study, the expression profile of proteins involved in stimulus-secretion coupling, as well as the function of the intercalated duct (ID) and striated duct cells, was examined. Particular focus was placed on defining differences between distinct duct cell populations. To accomplish this, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization were utilized to examine the localization and expression of proteins involved in reabsorption and secretion of ions and fluid. Further, in vivo calcium imaging was employed to investigate cellular function. Based on the protein expression profile and functional data, marked differences between the IDs and striated ducts were observed. Specifically, the ID cells express proteins native to the secretory acinar cells while lacking proteins specifically expressed in the striated ducts. Further, the ID and striated duct cells display different calcium signalling characteristics, with the IDs responding to a neural stimulus in a manner similar to the acinar cells. Overall, our data suggest that the IDs have a distinct role in the secretory process, separate from the reabsorptive striated ducts. Instead, based on our evidence, the IDs express proteins found in secretory cells, generate calcium signals in a manner similar to acinar cells, and, therefore, are likely secretory cells. KEY POINTS: Current studies examining salivary intercalated duct cells are limited, with minimal documentation of the ion transport machinery and the overall role of the cells in fluid generation. Salivary intercalated duct cells are presumed to function in the same manner as other duct cells, reclaiming ions, maintaining fluid volume and delivering the final saliva to the oral cavity. Here we systematically examine the structure and function of the salivary intercalated duct cells using immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization and by monitoring in vivo Ca2+ dynamics. Structural data revealed that the intercalated duct cells lack proteins vital for reabsorption and express proteins necessary for secretion. Ca2+ dynamics in the intercalated duct cells were consistent with those observed in secretory cells and resulted from GPCR-mediated IP3 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Wahl
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Takahiro Takano
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Shan Su
- Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Paola Perez
- Salivary Disorders Unit, NIDCR, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - James Sneyd
- Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David I Yule
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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9
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Dos Santos HT, Nam K, Small T, Maslow FM, Baker OJ. Confirming the Identity of Tuft Cells in Mouse Submandibular Glands. GASTRO HEP ADVANCES 2023; 2:1053-1055. [PMID: 38098741 PMCID: PMC10720652 DOI: 10.1016/j.gastha.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H Tavares Dos Santos
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - K Nam
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - T Small
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - F M Maslow
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - O J Baker
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
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10
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Horeth E, Bard J, Che M, Wrynn T, Song E, Marzullo B, Burke M, Popat S, Loree T, Zemer J, Tapia J, Frustino J, Kramer J, Sinha S, Romano R. High-Resolution Transcriptomic Landscape of the Human Submandibular Gland. J Dent Res 2023; 102:525-535. [PMID: 36726292 PMCID: PMC10249006 DOI: 10.1177/00220345221147908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Saliva-secreting and transporting cells are part of the complex cellular milieu of the human salivary gland, where they play important roles in normal glandular physiology and diseased states. However, comprehensive molecular characterization, particularly at single-cell resolution, is still incomplete, in part due to difficulty in procuring normal human tissues. Here, we perform an in-depth analysis of male and female adult human submandibular gland (SMG) samples by bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and examine the molecular underpinnings of the heterogeneous cell populations by single-cell (sc) RNA-seq. Our results from scRNA-seq highlight the remarkable diversity of clusters of epithelial and nonepithelial cells that reside in the SMG that is also faithfully recapitulated by deconvolution of the bulk-RNA data sets. Our analyses reveal complex transcriptomic heterogeneity within both the ductal and acinar subpopulations and identify atypical SMG cell types, such as mucoacinar cells that are unique to humans and ionocytes that have been recently described in the mouse. We use CellChat to explore ligand-receptor interactome predictions that likely mediate crucial cell-cell communications between the various cell clusters. Finally, we apply a trajectory inference method to investigate specific cellular branching points and topology that offers insights into the dynamic and complex differentiation process of the adult SMG. The data sets and the analyses herein comprise an extensive wealth of high-resolution information and a valuable resource for a deeper mechanistic understanding of human SMG biology and pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Horeth
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - J. Bard
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Core, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - M. Che
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - T. Wrynn
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - E.A.C. Song
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - B. Marzullo
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Core, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - M.S. Burke
- Erie County Medical Center, Department of Head & Neck/Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - S. Popat
- Erie County Medical Center, Department of Head & Neck/Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - T. Loree
- Erie County Medical Center, Department of Head & Neck/Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - J. Zemer
- Erie County Medical Center Division of Oral Oncology & Maxillofacial Prosthetics, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - J.L. Tapia
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - J. Frustino
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Erie County Medical Center Division of Oral Oncology & Maxillofacial Prosthetics, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - J.M. Kramer
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - S. Sinha
- Department of Biochemistry, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - R.A. Romano
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
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11
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Chibly AM, Patel VN, Aure MH, Pasquale MC, Martin GE, Ghannam M, Andrade J, Denegre NG, Simpson C, Goldstein DP, Liu FF, Lombaert IMA, Hoffman MP. Neurotrophin signaling is a central mechanism of salivary dysfunction after irradiation that disrupts myoepithelial cells. NPJ Regen Med 2023; 8:17. [PMID: 36966175 PMCID: PMC10039923 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-023-00290-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms that prevent regeneration of irradiated (IR) salivary glands remain elusive. Bulk RNAseq of IR versus non-IR human salivary glands showed that neurotrophin signaling is highly disrupted post-radiation. Neurotrophin receptors (NTRs) were significantly upregulated in myoepithelial cells (MECs) post-IR, and single cell RNAseq revealed that MECs pericytes, and duct cells are the main sources of neurotrophin ligands. Using two ex vivo models, we show that nerve growth factor (NGF) induces expression of MEC genes during development, and upregulation of NTRs in adult MECs is associated with stress-induced plasticity and morphological abnormalities in IR human glands. As MECs are epithelial progenitors after gland damage and are required for proper acinar cell contraction and secretion, we propose that MEC-specific upregulation of NTRs post-IR disrupts MEC differentiation and potentially impedes the ability of the gland to regenerate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro M Chibly
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Vaishali N Patel
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Marit H Aure
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Mary C Pasquale
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Gemma E Martin
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Mousa Ghannam
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Julianne Andrade
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Noah G Denegre
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Colleen Simpson
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, Toronto, ON, M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - David P Goldstein
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, Toronto, ON, M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Fei-Fei Liu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada
| | - Isabelle M A Lombaert
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- Department of Biologic and Material Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Matthew P Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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12
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Transcriptomic profile comparison reveals conservation of ionocytes across multiple organs. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3516. [PMID: 36864051 PMCID: PMC9981729 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30603-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Single-cell RNA sequencing has recently led to the identification of a flurry of rare, new cell types, such as the CFTR-high ionocytes in the airway epithelium. Ionocytes appear to be specifically responsible for fluid osmolarity and pH regulation. Similar cells exist in multiple other organs and have received various names, including intercalated cell in the kidney, mitochondria-rich cell in the inner ear, clear cell in the epididymis, and ionocyte in the salivary gland. Here, we compare the previously published transcriptomic profile of cells expressing FOXI1, the signature transcription factor expressed in airway ionocytes. Such FOXI1+ cells were found in datasets representing human and/or murine kidney, airway, epididymis, thymus, skin, inner ear, salivary gland, and prostate. This allowed us to assess the similarities between these cells and identify the core transcriptomic signature of this ionocyte 'family'. Our results demonstrate that, across all these organs, ionocytes maintain the expression of a characteristic set of genes, including FOXI1, KRT7, and ATP6V1B1. We conclude that the ionocyte signature defines a class of closely related cell types across multiple mammalian organs.
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13
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Aure MH, Symonds JM, Villapudua CU, Dodge JT, Werner S, Knosp WM, Hoffman MP. FGFR2b is essential for salivary gland duct homeostasis and MAPK-dependent seromucous acinar cell differentiation. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2557484. [PMID: 36824936 PMCID: PMC9949235 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2557484/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Exocrine secretory acinar cells in salivary glands (SG) are critical for oral health and loss of functional acinar cells is a major clinical challenge. Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) are essential for early development of multiple organs, including SG. However, the role of FGFR signaling in specific epithelial SG populations later in development and during acinar differentiation are unknown. Here, we predicted FGFR dependence in specific populations using scRNAseq data and conditional mouse models to delete FGFRs in vivo. We identifed essential roles for FGFRs in craniofacial and early SG development, as well as progenitor function during duct homeostasis. Importantly, we discovered that FGFR2b was critical for seromucous and serous acinar cell differentiation and secretory gene expression (Bpifa2 and Lpo) via MAPK signaling, while FGFR1b was dispensable. We show that FGF7, expressed by myoepithelial cells (MEC), activated the FGFR2b-dependent seromucous transcriptional program. We propose a model where MEC-derived FGF7 drives seromucous acinar differentiaton, providing a rationale for targeting FGFR2b signaling in regenerative therapies to restore acinar function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit H. Aure
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Jennifer M. Symonds
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Carlos U. Villapudua
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Joshua T. Dodge
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Sabine Werner
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wendy M. Knosp
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Matthew P. Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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14
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Han Y, Jia C, Wang T, Wang P, Liu W, Qin Y, Cai S, Yang X, Zhang W, Liu Y, Xiao X, He L, Ge W, Ni X. Acquired CFTR dysfunction and dense distribution of ionocytes in nasal mucosa of children with CRS. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2023; 280:3237-3247. [PMID: 36662267 DOI: 10.1007/s00405-023-07833-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ionocytes are rare cells in airway epithelium characterized by a high expression of CFTR. OBJECTIVES To investigate the morphology and distribution of ionocytes and the function of CFTR in the nasal mucosal epithelium of children. METHODS The exfoliated cells of nasal mucosa from 101 children were detected using flow cytometry to analyze the number of ionocytes and CFTR and the difference of CFTR function. Nasal mucosa and polyps were collected from 10 children with CRSwNP. The RNAscope of FOXI1 and CFTR was detected in pathological paraffin sections. The expression and distribution of ionocytes and CFTR in nasal mucosa and polyp epithelium were observed. RESULTS In CRS patients, the number of ionocytes in the nasal epithelium was lower and the number of ionocytes that did not express CFTR was higher, and the function of CFTR was also decreased. The expression of CFTR in the nasal mucosa of CRS showed the characteristics of local dense distribution and increased as the inflammation expanded. The ionocytes were "tadpole-shaped" in the epithelium and gathered in the area of high CFTR expression, the intracellular CFTR was expanded in clusters. Ionocytes that did not express CFTR was more common in the nasal polyps. CONCLUSIONS The number of ionocytes and the function of CFTR in nasal mucosa of CRS patients decreased. With the expansion of inflammation, CFTR and ionocytes showed more obvious dense distribution. Some ionocytes lost the expression of CFTR and did not show the "tadpole" shape, which may be related to the occurrence of polyps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Han
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Chao Jia
- Department of Pathology, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Tieshan Wang
- Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Pengpeng Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Wenjing Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Yu Qin
- Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Siyu Cai
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Yuwei Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Lejian He
- Department of Pathology, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100045, China
| | - Wentong Ge
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Pediatric Diseases of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100045, China.
| | - Xin Ni
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, 56 NanLishi Road, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100045, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Pediatric Diseases of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100045, China.
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15
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Huang H, Gao C, Wang S, Wu F, Wei J, Peng J. Bulk RNA-seq and scRNA-seq analysis reveal an activation of immune response and compromise of secretory function in major salivary glands of obese mice. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2022; 21:105-119. [PMID: 36544475 PMCID: PMC9735269 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.11.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity affects the function of multiple organs/tissues including the exocrine organ salivary glands. However, the effects of obesity on transcriptomes and cell compositions in the salivary glands have yet been studied by bulk RNA-sequencing and single-cell RNA-sequencing. Besides, the cell types in the sublingual gland, one of the three major salivary glands, have yet been characterized by the approach of single-cell RNA-sequencing. In this report, we find that the histological structure of the three major salivary glands are not obviously affected in the obese mice. Bulk RNA-sequencing analysis shows that the most prominent changes observed in the three major salivary glands of the obese mice are the mobilization of transcriptomes related to the immune response and down-regulation of genes related to the secretory function of the salivary glands. Based on single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis, we identify and annotate 17 cell clusters in the sublingual gland for the first time, and find that obesity alters the relative compositions of immune cells and secretory cells in the major glands of obese mice. Integrative analysis of the bulk RNA-sequencing and single-cell RNA-sequencing data confirms the activation of immune response genes and compromise of secretory function in the three major salivary glands of obese mice. Consequently, the secretion of extracellular matrix proteins is significantly reduced in the three major salivary glands of obese mice. These results provide new molecular insights into understanding the effect of obesity on salivary glands.
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16
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Bzdega K, Karolak JA. Phenotypic spectrum of FGF10-related disorders: a systematic review. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14003. [PMID: 36124135 PMCID: PMC9482362 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
FGF10, as an FGFR2b-specific ligand, plays a crucial role during cell proliferation, multi-organ development, and tissue injury repair. The developmental importance of FGF10 has been emphasized by the identification of FGF10 abnormalities in human congenital disorders affecting different organs and systems. Single-nucleotide variants in FGF10 or FGF10-involving copy-number variant deletions have been reported in families with lacrimo-auriculo-dento-digital syndrome, aplasia of the lacrimal and salivary glands, or lethal lung developmental disorders. Abnormalities involving FGF10 have also been implicated in cleft lip and palate, myopia, or congenital heart disease. However, the exact developmental role of FGF10 and large phenotypic heterogeneity associated with FGF10 disruption remain incompletely understood. Here, we review human and animal studies and summarize the data on FGF10 mechanism of action, expression, multi-organ function, as well as its variants and their usefulness for clinicians and researchers.
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17
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Willems M, Wells CF, Coubes C, Pequignot M, Kuony A, Michon F. Hypolacrimia and Alacrimia as Diagnostic Features for Genetic or Congenital Conditions. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:3. [PMID: 35925585 PMCID: PMC9363675 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.9.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of the lacrimal apparatus, the lacrimal gland participates in the maintenance of a healthy eye surface by producing the aqueous part of the tear film. Alacrimia and hypolacrimia, which are relatively rare during childhood or young adulthood, have their origin in a number of mechanisms which include agenesia, aplasia, hypoplasia, or incorrect maturation of the gland. Moreover, impaired innervation of the gland and/or the cornea and alterations of protein secretion pathways can lead to a defective tear film. In most conditions leading to alacrimia or hypolacrimia, however, the altered tear film is only one of numerous defects that arise and therefore is commonly disregarded. Here, we have systematically reviewed all of those genetic conditions or congenital disorders that have alacrimia or hypolacrimia as a feature. Where it is known, we describe the mechanism of the defect in question. It has been possible to clearly establish the physiopathology of only a minority of these conditions. As hypolacrimia and alacrimia are rare features, this review could be used as a tool in clinical genetics to perform a quick diagnosis, necessary for appropriate care and counseling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolaine Willems
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France.,Medical Genetic Department for Rare Diseases and Personalized Medicine, Reference Center AD SOOR, AnDDI-RARE, Montpellier University Hospital Center, Montpellier, France
| | - Constance F Wells
- Medical Genetic Department for Rare Diseases and Personalized Medicine, Reference Center AD SOOR, AnDDI-RARE, Montpellier University Hospital Center, Montpellier, France
| | - Christine Coubes
- Medical Genetic Department for Rare Diseases and Personalized Medicine, Reference Center AD SOOR, AnDDI-RARE, Montpellier University Hospital Center, Montpellier, France
| | - Marie Pequignot
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Alison Kuony
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France.,Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, France
| | - Frederic Michon
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
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18
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Chibly AM, Aure MH, Patel VN, Hoffman MP. Salivary gland function, development, and regeneration. Physiol Rev 2022; 102:1495-1552. [PMID: 35343828 PMCID: PMC9126227 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00015.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary glands produce and secrete saliva, which is essential for maintaining oral health and overall health. Understanding both the unique structure and physiological function of salivary glands, as well as how they are affected by disease and injury, will direct the development of therapy to repair and regenerate them. Significant recent advances, particularly in the OMICS field, increase our understanding of how salivary glands develop at the cellular, molecular, and genetic levels: the signaling pathways involved, the dynamics of progenitor cell lineages in development, homeostasis, and regeneration, and the role of the extracellular matrix microenvironment. These provide a template for cell and gene therapies as well as bioengineering approaches to repair or regenerate salivary function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro M Chibly
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Marit H Aure
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Vaishali N Patel
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Matthew P Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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