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Fernandes IO, Monteiro LC, de Miranda VL, Rodrigues YOS, de Freitas Muniz DH, de Castro Paes É, Bernardi JVE. Mercury distribution in organisms, litter, and soils of the Middle Araguaia floodplain in Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:20925-20940. [PMID: 38379047 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-32317-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is a chemical element that, depending on its concentration, may become toxic to living organisms due to the ability of Hg to bioaccumulate in food chains. In this study, we collected samples of soil, litter, and organisms in the Middle Araguaia floodplain, Brazil. Total mercury (THg) concentrations in litter were significantly higher (p < 0.0001) than that in soil, ranging from 10.68 ± 0.55 to 48.94 ± 0.13 and 20.80 ± 1.07 to 55 .19 ± 1.59 ng g-1, respectively. Total mercury concentration levels in soil showed a linear, inversely proportional relationship with soil organic matter (SOM) contents and soil pH, consistent with the geochemical behavior of chemical elements in flooded environments. Ten orders of organisms were identified, and the average THg concentrations determined in their bodies were up to 20 times higher than those in soil and litter. We found a significant linear relationship between the levels of THg in litter and those found in soil organisms, thereby allowing the prediction of THg concentration levels in soil organisms through the analysis of litter at the sample units. The different dynamics and feeding habits of soil organisms and the concentration of THg in these organisms may be influenced by the river's course. This study provides evidence of the bioaccumulation of THg in soil organisms in the floodplain of the Middle Araguaia River, an important river basin in the Brazilian savanna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iara Oliveira Fernandes
- Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Faculty UnB Planaltina, University of Brasília, Planaltina, Distrito Federal, 73345-010, Brazil.
| | - Lucas Cabrera Monteiro
- Graduate Program in Ecology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Lima de Miranda
- Graduate Program in Zoology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Ygor Oliveira Sarmento Rodrigues
- Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Faculty UnB Planaltina, University of Brasília, Planaltina, Distrito Federal, 73345-010, Brazil
| | - Daphne Heloisa de Freitas Muniz
- Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Faculty UnB Planaltina, University of Brasília, Planaltina, Distrito Federal, 73345-010, Brazil
| | - Ésio de Castro Paes
- Graduate Program in Soils and Plant Nutrition, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - José Vicente Elias Bernardi
- Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Faculty UnB Planaltina, University of Brasília, Planaltina, Distrito Federal, 73345-010, Brazil
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Božič D, Horvat M. Insights into seasonal variations in mercury isotope composition of lichens. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 340:122740. [PMID: 37865331 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Lichens are commonly used to assess mercury (Hg) concentrations in air because of their cost-effectiveness. However, recent research has revealed temporal variations in the isotopic composition of Hg. Previous work on this topic leaves open questions about the repeatability of data over multiple seasons, different types of sampling (transplantation or in-situ collection), and diverse locations. This study aims to address these issues by conducting a high-frequency sampling campaign of in-situ and transplanted lichens and atmospheric particulate matter (APM). Sampling sites included a range of areas, from pristine to Hg-contaminated sites. Isotopic analysis showed that the isotopic composition of Hg in lichens undergoes mass-dependent fractionation and changes with time. The heaviest isotopic composition was observed in summer and the lightest in winter. These trends were consistent across polluted and unpolluted environments, as well as in both in-situ and transplanted lichens and in APM. The results further indicated towards a correlation between changes in Hg concentrations and isotopic composition in lichens and environmental factors. All of these variables seem to be changing at the same frequency and may have not just correlation but also causation relationship. Environmental factors seem to be influencing the Hg concentrations and isotopic composition. The summer high temperatures might be influencing the heavier isotopic fingerprint observed in lichens during the same season. Similarities with APM-bound Hg suggest a common underlying mechanism. This study highlights the importance of considering temporal and seasonal trends, as well as the method of lichen sampling, when interpreting results. Researchers using lichens as proxies for atmospheric Hg concentrations or isotope ratios should consider these findings when designing their studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Božič
- Department of Environmental Science, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Street 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova Street 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Milena Horvat
- Department of Environmental Science, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Street 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova Street 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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3
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Jiang W, Meng L, Liu F, Sheng Y, Chen S, Yang J, Mao H, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Ning H. Distribution, source investigation, and risk assessment of topsoil heavy metals in areas with intensive anthropogenic activities using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model coupled with self-organizing map (SOM). ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:6353-6370. [PMID: 37310651 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-023-01587-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, heavy metal (HMs) contamination in soil environments has become severe worldwide. However, their resulting ecological and health risks remained elusive across a variety of soil ecosystems due to the complicated distributions and sources. This study investigated the HMs (Cr, As, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cd, and Hg) in areas with multi-mineral resources and intensive agricultural activities to study their distribution and source apportionment using a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model coupled with self-organizing map (SOM). The potential ecological and health risks were assessed in terms of distinct sources of HMs. The results disclosed that the spatial distribution of HM contaminations in the topsoil was region-dependent, primarily located in areas with high population intensity. The geo‑accumulation index (Igeo) and enrichment factor (EF) values collectively displayed that the topsoils were severely contaminated by Hg, Cu, and Pb, particularly in residential farmland areas. The comprehensive analysis combined with PMF and SOM identified both geogenic and anthropogenic sources of HMs including natural, agricultural, mining, and mixed sources (caused by multi-anthropogenic factors), accounting for 24.9%, 22.6%, 45.9%, and 6.6% contribution rates, respectively. The potential ecological risk was predominantly due to the enrichment of Hg, followed by Cd. The non-carcinogenic risks were mostly below the acceptable risk level, while the potential carcinogenic health risks caused by As and Cr should be paid prime attention to, particularly for children. In addition to the 40% geogenic sources, agricultural activities contributed to 30% of the non-carcinogenic risk, whereas mining activities contributed to nearly half of the carcinogenic health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanjun Jiang
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Lishan Meng
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Futian Liu
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Yizhi Sheng
- Center for Geomicrobiology and Biogeochemistry Research, State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China.
| | - Sheming Chen
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China.
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China.
| | - Jilong Yang
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Hairu Mao
- School of Water Resources & Environment, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
| | - Hang Ning
- Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, 300170, China
- Center of Geoscience Innovation, North China, Tianjin, 300170, China
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Tomiyasu T, Yasumatsu S, Kodamatani H, Kanzaki R, Takenaka C, Murao S, Miyagawa S, Nonaka K, Ikeguchi A, Navarrete IA. The dynamics of mercury around an artisanal and small-scale gold mining area, Camarines Norte, Philippines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:20052-20064. [PMID: 36251184 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23497-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the dynamics of mercury emitted and released by artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activity and to estimate its impact on the ecosystems of the bay, the distribution of mercury in the atmosphere, soil, water, and sediment around Mambulao Bay, Camarines Norte, Philippines, was investigated. The ASGM operations use mercury to extract gold from ore and are located on the east shore side of the bay. Samplings were conducted in August 2017 and September 2018. The samples were used for determination of total mercury (T-Hg) and organic mercury (org-Hg) concentrations, total organic carbon (TOC) content, and chemical composition. The atmospheric mercury concentration on the east shore side, 6.1-25.8 ng m-3, was significantly higher than the value of 1.4-9.9 ng m-3 observed on the west shore side. The average concentrations of T-Hg in the forest soils of the west shore side and those of the east shore side were 0.081 ± 0.028 mg kg-1 and 0.496 ± 0.439 mg kg-1, respectively. In the vertical distribution of T-Hg in the soil of the east shore side, a higher concentration was observed near the surface. For the vertical variations in T-Hg in the marine sediment, higher values were observed near the estuary, and the vertical variations in core samples showed an increase in mercury concentration toward the surface. The highest concentration of T-Hg in sediment, 9.5 mg kg-1, which was 2 orders of magnitude higher than the background levels of this area, was found near the river mouth. The T-Hg, org-Hg, and TOC levels showed a positive correlation, suggesting that the rivers are the main sources of T-Hg and org-Hg in the bay. Although the fish sample containing a mercury content higher than the regulatory level for fish and shellfish of 0.4 mg kg-1 in Japan was only one of 42 samples, the percentage of org-Hg in fish samples was 91 ± 18%. Mercury released into the surroundings by the ASGM activities can be converted into methylmercury and affect the bay's ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Tomiyasu
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Sora Yasumatsu
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Kodamatani
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Ryo Kanzaki
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Chisato Takenaka
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | - Shuichi Miyagawa
- Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | | | - Akiko Ikeguchi
- College of Education, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Ian A Navarrete
- Department of Environmental Science, Southern Leyte State University-Hinunangan Campus, Ambacon, Hinunangan, Southern, Leyte, Philippines
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Gfeller L, Caplette JN, Frossard A, Mestrot A. Organo-mercury species in a polluted agricultural flood plain: Combining speciation methods and polymerase chain reaction to investigate pathways of contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 311:119854. [PMID: 35998774 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of organic mercury (Hg) species in polluted soils is a necessary tool to assess the environmental risk(s) of mercury in contaminated legacy sites. The artificial formation of monomethylmercury (MeHg) during soil extraction and/or analysis is a well-known limitation and is especially relevant in highly polluted areas where MeHg/Hg ratios are notoriously low. Although this has been known for almost 30 years, the thorough characterisation of artificial formation rates is rarely a part of the method development in scientific literature. Here we present the application of two separate procedures (inorganic Hg (iHg) spiking and double-spike isotope dilution analyses (DSIDA)) to determine and correct for artificial Hg methylation in MeHg-selective acid-leaching/organic solvent extraction procedure. Subsequently, we combined corrected MeHg and ethylmercury (EtHg) measurements with PCR amplification of hgcA genes to distinguish between naturally formed MeHg from primary deposited MeHg in soils from a legacy site in a Swiss mountain valley. We found the DSIDA procedure incompatible with the organomercury selective extraction method due to the quantitative removal of iHg. Methylation factors from iHg spiking were in the range of (0.0075 ± 0.0001%) and were consistent across soils and sediment matrices. Further, we suggest that MeHg was deposited and not formed in-situ in two out of three studied locations. Our line of evidence consists of 1) the concomitant detection of EtHg, 2) the elevated MeHg concentrations (up to 4.84 μg kg-1), and 3) the absence of hgcA genes at these locations. The combination of Hg speciation and methylation gene (hgcA) abundance analyses are tools suited to assess Hg pollution pathways at Hg legacy sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Gfeller
- Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jaime N Caplette
- Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Aline Frossard
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Mestrot
- Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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Yu RQ, Barkay T. Microbial mercury transformations: Molecules, functions and organisms. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2022; 118:31-90. [PMID: 35461663 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) methylation, methylmercury (MeHg) demethylation, and inorganic redox transformations of Hg are microbe-mediating processes that determine the fate and cycling of Hg and MeHg in many environments, and by doing so influence the health of humans and wild life. The discovery of the Hg methylation genes, hgcAB, in the last decade together with advances in high throughput and genome sequencing methods, have resulted in an expanded appreciation of the diversity of Hg methylating microbes. This review aims to describe experimentally confirmed and recently discovered hgcAB gene-carrying Hg methylating microbes; phylogenetic and taxonomic analyses are presented. In addition, the current knowledge on transformation mechanisms, the organisms that carry them out, and the impact of environmental parameters on Hg methylation, MeHg demethylation, and inorganic Hg reduction and oxidation is summarized. This knowledge provides a foundation for future action toward mitigating the impact of environmental Hg pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ri-Qing Yu
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States.
| | - Tamar Barkay
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, United States
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Kodamatani H, Shigetomi A, Akama J, Kanzaki R, Tomiyasu T. Distribution, alkylation, and migration of mercury in soil discharged from the Itomuka mercury mine. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 815:152492. [PMID: 34958844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavior of previously discharged mercury (Hg) released from the Itomuka Hg mine into the surrounding environment, especially into soil. Total-Hg (T-Hg), methylmercury (MeHg), and ethylmercury (EtHg) concentrations in the surface soil at eight sample sites around the mine were 3.8-64.2 mg/kg, 6.0-54.7 μg/kg, and undetected to 4.5 μg/kg, respectively. Core samples collected from seven of the eight sample sites showed that the vertical distribution of T-Hg was the highest in the surface soil layer and decreased rapidly in the lower layers. A strong positive correlation was observed between T-Hg and MeHg concentrations in the core samples; however, the slope of the regression line varied considerably for each core. This suggests that Hg and MeHg were not supplied from the atmosphere simultaneously, but rather that MeHg was produced on-site. Further, the formation of MeHg and EtHg in soil was considered in terms of the total organic carbon/total nitrogen ratio, which is a decomposition index of soil organic matter. The strong positive correlation between T-Hg and MeHg can be attributed to the migration of organic matter containing Hg species to the lower layers. There was no relationship between T-Hg and MeHg at the riverbed sample site because of the high T-Hg in the lower soil layers, suggesting that Hg was supplied by ore at this sample site. These assumptions of the formation change and migration of Hg in soil were supported by the results of the fractionation experiment and the elution test. To understand the current conditions in this area, measurements of Hg in the water, sediment, atmosphere, and plants were also conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Kodamatani
- Division of Earth and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Azusa Shigetomi
- Division of Earth and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Junna Akama
- Division of Earth and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Ryo Kanzaki
- Division of Earth and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Takashi Tomiyasu
- Division of Earth and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-35 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
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Petry-Podgórska I, Schrenková V, Migašová M, Matoušek T, Kratzer J. Speciation analysis of mercury employing volatile species generation: Approaches to reliable determination in blood and hair. Microchem J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2021.106606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Cho K, Kang J, Kim S, Purev O, Myung E, Kim H, Choi N. Effect of inorganic carbonate and organic matter in thermal treatment of mercury-contaminated soil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:48184-48193. [PMID: 33904130 PMCID: PMC8410726 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14024-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Thermal treatment of mercury (Hg)-contaminated soil was studied to investigate the desorption behavior of Hg at different temperatures. The soil samples were collected from two locations with different land uses around the mine and industrial site. The effect of soil properties such as inorganic carbonate minerals and organic matter content on Hg desorption was investigated to understand the thermal desorption process. The effect of soil composition on Hg desorption showed that behavior at 100 °C was similar, but a different behavior could be found at 300 °C. The thermal desorption efficiency at 300 °C is affected by the thermal properties of soils and the Hg desorption capacity of the soils. The Hg from both soil types was removed above 300 °C, and Hg was effectively removed from mine soil due to the partial decomposition of carbonate in the soil composition, while industrial soil showed that desorption would be restrained by Hg organic matter complexes due to organic matter content. Despite a relatively higher concentration of Hg in the mine soil, Hg removal efficiency was greater than that in the industrial soil. Sequential extraction results showed that only the Hg fractions (residual fractions, step 6) in mine soil changed, while the industrial soil was affected by changes in Hg fractions (step 3 to step 6) at 300 °C. Changes in soil pH during thermal desorption are also influenced by heating time and temperature. Therefore, the mechanisms of Hg desorption during thermal treatment were observed by soil properties. The volatilization of Hg in the soil is induced by organic carbon, while soil Hg release is controlled by organic matter complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanghee Cho
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Jinkyu Kang
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Songbae Kim
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Oyunbileg Purev
- Department of Energy and Resource Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju, 61452, Korea
| | - Eunji Myung
- Department of Energy and Resource Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju, 61452, Korea
| | - Hyunsoo Kim
- Department of Energy and Resource Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju, 61452, Korea
| | - Nagchoul Choi
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.
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de la Fournière EM, Meichtry JM, Gautier EA, Leyva AG, Litter MI. Treatment of ethylmercury chloride by heterogeneous photocatalysis with TiO2. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2021.113205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Distribution of total and organic mercury in soils around an artisanal and small-scale gold mining area in West Java, Indonesia. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-020-3008-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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Bourdineaud JP, Durn G, Režun B, Manceau A, Hrenović J. The chemical species of mercury accumulated by Pseudomonas idrijaensis, a bacterium from a rock of the Idrija mercury mine, Slovenia. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 248:126002. [PMID: 32032872 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A mercury-resistant bacterial strain has been isolated from a rock of the Idrija mercury mine in Slovenia. The rock had 19 g carbon and 2952 mg mercury (Hg) per kg. Mass spectrometry and DNA sequencing showed that the bacterium belongs to the Pseudomonas genus. It is called Pseudomonas idrijaensis. This bacterial strain is sensitive to methylmercury (MeHg) like the reference P. aeruginosa strain PAO1, and is resistant to divalent mercury (Hg(II)) in contrast to PAO1. This difference could be attributed to the presence of the mer operon yet deprived of the merB gene encoding the organomercurial lyase, on the basis of whole genome sequencing. The P. idrijaensis mer operon displays the RTPCADE organization and is contained in the Tn5041 transposon. This transposon identified here occurs in other Gram-negative Hg-resistant strains isolated from mercury ores, aquatic systems and soils, including Pseudomonas strains from 15,000 to 40,000 years old Siberian permafrost. When P. idrijaensis was exposed to mercury chloride, two intracellular Hg species were identified by high energy-resolution XANES spectroscopy, a dithiolate Hg(SR)2 and a tetrathiolate Hg(SR)4 complex. P. idrijaensis had a much higher [Hg(SR)2]/[Hg(SR)4] molar ratio than bacteria lacking the mer operon when exposed to 4 μg Hg2+/L - resulting in an intracellular accumulation of 4.3 μg Hg/g dw. A higher amount of the Hg(SR)2 complex provides a chemical signature for the expression of the dicysteinate Mer proteins in response to mercury toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Paul Bourdineaud
- University of Bordeaux, CNRS, Fundamental Microbiology and Pathogenicity Laboratory, European Institute of Chemistry and Biology, 2 Rue Robert Escarpit, 33607, Pessac, France.
| | - Goran Durn
- University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, Croatia.
| | - Bojan Režun
- Idrija UNESCO Global Geopark, Lapajnetova 1A 5280, Idrija, Slovenia.
| | - Alain Manceau
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, ISTerre, 38000, Grenoble, France.
| | - Jasna Hrenović
- University of Zagreb, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Kavčič A, Budič B, Vogel-Mikuš K. The effects of selenium biofortification on mercury bioavailability and toxicity in the lettuce-slug food chain. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 135:110939. [PMID: 31697969 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The effects of foliar Se biofortification (Se+) of the lettuce on the transfer and toxicity of Hg from soil contaminated with HgCl2 (H) and soil collected near the former Hg smelter in Idrija (I), to terrestrial food chain are explored, with Spanish slug as a primary consumer. Foliar application of Se significantly increased Se content in the lettuce, with no detected toxic effects. Mercury exerted toxic effects on plants, decreasing plant biomass, photochemical efficiency of the photosystem II (Fv/Fm) and the total chlorophyll content. Selenium biofortification (Se+ test group) had no effect on Hg bioaccumulation in plants. In slugs, different responses were observed in H and I groups; the I/Se+ subgroup was the most strongly affected by Hg toxicity, exhibiting lower biomass, feeding and growth rate and a higher hepatopancreas/ muscle Hg translocation, pointing to a higher Hg mobility in comparison to H group. Selenium increased Hg bioavailability for slugs, but with opposite physiological responses: alleviating stress in H/Se+ and inducing it in I/Se+ group, indicating different mechanisms of Hg-Se interactions in the food chain under HgCl2 and Idrija soil exposures that can be mainly attributed to different Hg speciation and ligand environment in the soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Kavčič
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Bojan Budič
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Katarina Vogel-Mikuš
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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14
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Ao M, Xu X, Wu Y, Zhang C, Meng B, Shang L, Liang L, Qiu R, Wang S, Qian X, Zhao L, Qiu G. Newly deposited atmospheric mercury in a simulated rice ecosystem in an active mercury mining region: High loading, accumulation, and availability. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 238:124630. [PMID: 31473530 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Revised: 08/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) mining activities are an important anthropogenic source of atmospheric Hg. The Xunyang Hg mine located in Shaanxi Province is the largest active Hg producing centre in China. To understand the biogeochemical processes of atmospheric Hg through Hg mining activities, six groups of experimental pots were carefully designed to investigate the effect of Hg mining activities on Hg contamination from atmospheric deposition in the local surface soils. Based on the variations of Hg in the soil from the experimental pots, the deposition flux and loading of Hg in the Xunyang Hg mining district were investigated. The results showed that the average concentration of total gaseous mercury (TGM) as high as 193 ± 122 ng m-3 was observed in the ambient air, which was orders of magnitude higher than that in remote areas. The average deposition flux and annual loading of atmospheric Hg were 72 mg m-2 y-1 and 10 t y-1, respectively. The dominant atmospheric Hg deposition is within a distance range of 6.0-12 km from the Hg retorting facility, accounting for approximately 85% of the total Hg loading. After 14 months of exposure, total mercury (THg) concentrations in the soil from the experimental pots increased 0.35-9.5 times, and the highest concentrations of methylmercury (MeHg) (3.7 ± 2.9 μg kg-1) in soil were observed in February. Concentrations as high as 643 μg kg-1 THg and 13 μg kg-1 MeHg in rice were observed in the second experimental year. Elevated concentrations of both THg and MeHg in rice indicated that the newly deposited atmospheric Hg was bioavailable, readily methylated, and taken up by rice, suggesting that the ongoing Hg mining activities cause serious Hg contamination in the soil-rice ecosystem and posed a threat to local residents in the Xunyang Hg mining area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China; College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Xiaohang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Yonggui Wu
- College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China.
| | - Chao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China
| | - Bo Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China
| | - Lihai Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China
| | - Longchao Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China; College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Rongliang Qiu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China
| | - Shizhong Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Qian
- College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China
| | - Guangle Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, PR China.
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15
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Engineered cells for selective detection and remediation of Hg2+ based on transcription factor MerR regulated cell surface displayed systems. Biochem Eng J 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2019.107289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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16
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Rodríguez-Alonso J, Sierra MJ, Lominchar MÁ, Millán R. Effects of mercury on the germination and growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:30930-30940. [PMID: 31452119 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06186-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
While it is well-known that the toxicity of mercury for plants is related to its bioavailability in the environment in which the plant lives, few studies have addressed Hg effects under controlled conditions of life-limiting available Hg concentrations. This study examines the effects of Hg on the holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) exposed to medium-high available Hg concentrations. Holm oak seeds were sown in a perlite substrate and grown in the presence of a nutrient solution containing 0, 5, 25, or 50 μM Hg. The variables determined as outcome measures were impacts on germination, growth, and nutrient accumulation along with Hg concentration in leaves, stems, and roots at different growth stages. Our findings suggest no overall detrimental effects of the metal on germination, nutrient accumulation, and plant growth, although root morphology was clearly modified. Mercury accumulation in the plant varied according to time, organ, Hg treatment dose, and plant growth stage. When comparing Hg build-up in the different organs, highest concentrations of the metal were detected in the roots, followed by the leaves and stems. The Hg accumulation pattern was positively correlated with time and Hg dose, whereas negative correlation was observed with growth stage. The impacts of all these factors on Hg accumulation were not additive pointing to interesting interaction effects that should be explored in future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Rodríguez-Alonso
- CIEMAT-Environmental Department (DMA), Avenida Complutense 40, Building 20, E-28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - María José Sierra
- CIEMAT-Environmental Department (DMA), Avenida Complutense 40, Building 20, E-28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Lominchar
- CIEMAT-Environmental Department (DMA), Avenida Complutense 40, Building 20, E-28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rocío Millán
- CIEMAT-Environmental Department (DMA), Avenida Complutense 40, Building 20, E-28040, Madrid, Spain
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17
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O'Connor D, Hou D, Ok YS, Mulder J, Duan L, Wu Q, Wang S, Tack FMG, Rinklebe J. Mercury speciation, transformation, and transportation in soils, atmospheric flux, and implications for risk management: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 126:747-761. [PMID: 30878870 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is a potentially harmful trace element in the environment and one of the World Health Organization's foremost chemicals of concern. The threat posed by Hg contaminated soils to humans is pervasive, with an estimated 86 Gg of anthropogenic Hg pollution accumulated in surface soils worldwide. This review critically examines both recent advances and remaining knowledge gaps with respect to cycling of mercury in the soil environment, to aid the assessment and management of risks caused by Hg contamination. Included in this review are factors affecting Hg release from soil to the atmosphere, including how rainfall events drive gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) flux from soils of low Hg content, and how ambient conditions such as atmospheric O3 concentration play a significant role. Mercury contaminated soils constitute complex systems where many interdependent factors, including the amount and composition of soil organic matter and clays, oxidized minerals (e.g. Fe oxides), reduced elements (e.g. S2-), as well as soil pH and redox conditions affect Hg forms and transformation. Speciation influences the extent and rate of Hg subsurface transportation, which has often been assumed insignificant. Nano-sized Hg particles as well as soluble Hg complexes play important roles in soil Hg mobility, availability, and methylation. Finally, implications for human health and suggested research directions are put forward, where there is significant potential to improve remedial actions by accounting for Hg speciation and transportation factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- David O'Connor
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Site Remediation Technologies, China
| | - Deyi Hou
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Site Remediation Technologies, China.
| | - Yong Sik Ok
- Korea Biochar Research Center, OJeong Eco-Resilience Institute & Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jan Mulder
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Lei Duan
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Qingru Wu
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuxiao Wang
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Filip M G Tack
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- University of Wuppertal, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Pauluskirchstraße 7, Wuppertal 42285, Germany; Department of Environment, Energy and Geoinformatics, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-Dong, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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18
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Budnik LT, Casteleyn L. Mercury pollution in modern times and its socio-medical consequences. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 654:720-734. [PMID: 30448663 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Mercury plays a critical role in serious health problems due to environmental or occupational exposures. Aquatic ecosystems are an essential component of the global biogeochemical cycle of mercury, as inorganic mercury can be converted to toxic methyl mercury in these environments and reemissions of elemental mercury rival anthropogenic mercury releases on a global scale. The history of the Minamata disease, a typical example of industrial pollution, has shown how corporate secrecy and ignorance on part of the health authorities may influence the devastating spread of environmental contamination and the progress of disease. While the Minamata Convention, in place since 2017, is aiming to lower mercury exposure and to prevent adverse effects, there are still knowledge gaps in the areas of global environmental mercury exposure. Areas of uncertainty in the global biogeochemical cycle of mercury include oxidation processes in the atmosphere, land-atmosphere and ocean-atmosphere cycling, and methylation processes in the ocean. Pollution related to climate change (especially in boreal and arctic regions), bioaccumulation and biomagnification of methyl mercury in the food chain, especially in fish and marine mammals, needs to be addressed in more detail. Information is lacking on numerous hidden contaminant exposures i.e. from globally applied traditional medicine, mercury containing skin creams and soaps, dental amalgam, ethyl mercury containing vaccines and latex paint additives, as well as on mercury releases from power plants, e-waste/fluorescent lamps, wildfire emissions, and global artisanal small-scale gold mining activities. Mercury occurs in various forms with different levels of toxicity. While much is already known and documented on the health effects of mercury, present knowledge and translation into preventive actions is still incomplete. Risks for long term health effects trough prolonged low dose exposure and trough cumulative exposures of various mercury forms should be further addressed. Preventive actions should include adequate human biomonitoring programs. Research data should be translated swiftly into management tools for local policy makers and health professionals, also paying attention at the major differences in mercury contamination across the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lygia Therese Budnik
- University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institute for Occupational and Maritime Medicine, Translational Toxicology and Immunology Unit, Hamburg, Germany.
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19
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Han D, Fu Q, Gao S, Zhang X, Feng J, Chen X, Huang X, Liao H, Cheng J, Wang W. Investigate the impact of local iron-steel industrial emission on atmospheric mercury concentration in Yangtze River Delta, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:5862-5872. [PMID: 30612373 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3978-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Mercury is a global neurotoxic pollutant, which can be globally transported and bioaccumulated in the food chain. Iron-steel production is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic atmospheric mercury emission, while information on this source is scarce. Hourly gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) and particle bound mercury (PBM) were studied inside (IP) and at the boundary (BP) of a typical iron-steel plant in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), China from September 2016 to August 2017. The GEM concentrations were 0.97-503.1 and 0.05-112.6 ng/m3 at the IP and BP sites, respectively, while PBM concentrations were one to four orders of magnitude higher than urban and suburban ambient levels. Several lines of evidences indicated that PBM was mainly originated from the iron-steel manufacturing process, especially from sintering and coke-making processes in this iron-steel plant. However, a combined emission effect contributed to GEM variation. The receptor model of positive matrix factorization (PMF) showed that local direct emissions (coal combustion, industrial activity, vehicle exhaust, and secondary evaporation from polluted soil) contributed 51.3% of the total GEM concentration variation. Potential source contribution function (PSCF) and concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) models clearly showed that air masses moving from areas surrounding YRD had the highest concentrations of atmospheric mercury. These results provided evidence that iron-steel manufacturing emissions have a considerable effect on regional atmospheric mercury concentrations, especially PBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deming Han
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingyan Fu
- Shanghai Environmental Monitor Center, 55 Sanjiang Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, China
| | - Song Gao
- Shanghai Environmental Monitor Center, 55 Sanjiang Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, China
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China
| | - Xufeng Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingjing Feng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaolin Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiqian Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Haoxiang Liao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinping Cheng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wenhua Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China
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20
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Dórea JG. Multiple low-level exposures: Hg interactions with co-occurring neurotoxic substances in early life. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1863:129243. [PMID: 30385391 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
All chemical forms of Hg can affect neurodevelopment; however, low levels of organic Hg (methylmercury-MeHg and ethylmercury-EtHg in Thimerosal-containing vaccines, hereafter 'TCV') exposures during early life (pregnancy and lactation) co-occur with other environmental neurotoxic substances. These neurotoxicants may act in parallel, synergistically, or antagonistically to Hg. Nevertheless, the risks of neurotoxicity associated with multiple neuro-toxicants depend on type, time, combinations of exposure, and environmental and/or genetic-associated factors. Neurological developmental disorders, delays in cognition and behavioral outcomes associated with multiple exposures (which include Hg) may show transient or lasting outcomes depending on constitutional and/or environmental factors that can interact to neutralize, aggravate or attenuate these effects; often these studies are challenging to interpret. During pregnancy and lactation, fish-MeHg exposure is frequently confounded with the opposing effects of neuroactive nutrients (in fish) that lead to positive, negative, or no effects on neurobehavioral tests. In infancy, exposures to acute binary mixtures (TCV- EtHg and Al-adjuvants in infant immunizations) are associated with increased risks of tics and other developmental disorders. Despite the certitude that promulgates single environmental neurotoxicants, empirical comparisons of combined exposures indicate that Hg-related outcome is uneven. Hg in combination with other neurotoxic mixtures may elevate risks of neurotoxicity, but these risks arise in circumstances that are not yet predictable. Therefore, to achieve the goals of the Minamata treaty and to safeguard the health of children, low levels of mercury exposure (in any chemical form) needs to be further reduced whether the source is environmental (air- and food-borne) or iatrogenic (pediatric TCVs).
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Affiliation(s)
- José G Dórea
- Universidade de Brasília, Brasília 70919-970, DF, Brazil..
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